A Historical Grammar of the Maya Language of Yucatan (1557-2000)
Page 7
Affix
Phonetic spelling
Gloss
ab
ab’
passive
ah
ax
transitive perfective
ac
ak
derived intransitive subjunctive
al
al
ownership possession
an
áʔan
participial
b
b’
passive
be
b’eʔ
peripheral sensory
ben
b’éʔen
potential
bil
b’il
future participial
ɮil
ȼil
reverential
ci
kih
affect adjective
cin kíin
causative
cun
kúun
causative
ch
č
inchoative
e
eʔ
topical enclitic
ech
eč
second person singular object of transitives
or subject of statives and completive intransitives
e
eh
transitive imperative
el
el
inalienable possession
en
en
first person singular object of transitives or
subject of statives and completive intransitives
es es
causative
ex
éʔeš
second person plural object of transitives or
subject of statives and perfective intransitives
h h
inchoative
i
ih
intransitive perfective
ic
ik
transitive imperfective
il il
possessive
ili
iliʔ
yet, still
ina ina
even
k
k’
celeritive
l l
positional
la la
proximal
lo lo
distal
m
m
present perfect and affect
n n
antipassive
nac
nak
affect adjective
ob
óʔob’
third person plural object of transitives, subject
of intransitives and statives, and plural of nouns
oon
óʔon
first person plural object of transitives and
subject of intransitives and statives
p
p
agentless passive
PHONOLOGY 23
s s
causative
t t
transitivizer
tal
tal
inchoative and positional imperfective
yah
yah
frequentative and nominal
Vb
Vb’
root transitive future and instrumental
Vc
Vk
intransitive subjunctive
Vl
Vl
intransitive imperfective and participial
The shapes represented by these suffixes include C (b, ch, k, l, m, n, p, s, t), CV (ci, la, lo), VC (ab, ah, ak. al,
ech, el, en, ic, il), CVC (bal, cin, cun, nac, tal, yah), VCV (ili, ina).
2. PHONOLOGICAL PROCESSES
2.1. STEMS. In looking at phonology, I will consider stems, which are composed of roots and affixes. The
simplest stem consists of a single root, usually a noun, adjective, or particle. More complex stems are com-
posed of one or more roots or affixes. Because Colonial Yucatec is an agglutinating language, the word is
a less salient unit of analysis than the stem.
2.2. CONSONANTAL PROCESSES. The limitation of roots to CVC and CVCVC shapes means that they contain
no consonant clusters and that consonant clusters occur only across morpheme boundaries, either when
affixes are attached to roots or when roots are concatenated with each other. The resulting CC clusters are
problematical in Colonial Yucatec, and the phonological processes of consonant deletion, debuccalization,
and vowel epenthesis are invoked to modify or eliminate them.
2.2.1. IDENTICAL-CONSONANT CLUSTERS. If two adjacent consonants are identical, the first consonant is
either deleted or debuccalized (that is, the consonant is reduced to a laryngeal glottal or h).
2.2.1.1. SONORANT CLUSTERS. In Modern Yucatec, if the two adjacent consonants are both identical
sonorants (glides, liquids, nasals, or laryngeals), the first of the two consonants is deleted (Orie and
V. Bricker 2000:296). I have found evidence of such a pattern of deletion for one glide [y], one nasal [n], and
the liquid [l] in Colonial Yucatec:
(7)
Input
Output
Gloss
uay y-ok-ol [way y óok’-ol]
ua_ y-ok-ol [wa_ y óok’-ol]
here above
tħan-n-ah-i [t’àan-n-ah-ih]
tħa_-n-ah-i [t’àa_-n-ax-ih]
he spoke
can-al lae [káʔan-al laʔeʔ ?]
can-a_ lae [káʔan-a_ laʔeʔ ?]
above this
Because neither the glottal stop nor the final laryngeal “h” is represented in the Colonial orthography, it is
not possible to determine whether the first of two identical adjacent laryngeal consonants is also deleted.
2.2.1.2. OBSTRUENT CLUSTERS. In Modern Yucatec, if the two adjacent consonants are identical and both
are obstruents, then the first consonant can be modified in three ways. If it is an ejective, it changes to a
glottal stop; if it is not an ejective, it becomes an [h] (Orie and V. Bricker 2000:296). The relevant data in
Colonial Yucatec I have found are suggestive but not conclusive with respect to such clusters:
24 PHONOLOGY
(8)
Input
Output
Gloss
sac cab [sak kab’]
sah cab [sax kab’]
white earth
tac- cun [táʔak-kun]
ta_-cun [táʔah-kun]
guard, protect
et tal-il [ʔéet tàal-il]
e_ tal-il [ʔéeh tàal-il]
companion
hech-ch-ah [heč-č-ax]
he_-ch-ah [heh-č-ax]
become wide open
pak keban [pak’ k’eb’an]
pa_ keban [paʔ k’eb’an]
fornicate
x cħup pal [š č’ùup pàal]
x cħu_ pal [š č’úu_ pal]
girl, young lady
First of all, in the sac-cab example, the first “c” (= phonetic [k]) is always replaced by the velar “h”
(= phonetic [x]). Although there is still evidence of a phonological distinction between velar and laryngeal
“h” in Modern Yucatec (Orie and V. Bricker 2000), only laryngeal “h” is manifested phonetically. Because
velar and laryngeal “h” have collapsed together in Modern Yucatec, the first consonant in identical obstru-
ent clusters always becomes [h].
On the other hand, the first “c” in the tac-cun example behaves differently. Instead of becoming [x], it
disappears. I suspect that it is not written because it has been debuccalized to [h], for which there was no
symbol in the orthography used for Colonial Yucatec. It conforms, in this res
pect, to the phonological treat-
ment of stop clusters in Modern Yucatec. The third example, which also contains a stop cluster (et tal-il),
follows a similar pattern, deleting the first consonant and perhaps replacing it with laryngeal “h,” which
was never recorded in root-final position in Colonial Yucatec.
The fourth example in (8) shows what happens when the two adjacent consonants are identical affri-
cates. In this case, the first consonant disappears, whereas it would change to laryngeal “h” in Modern
Yucatec. But laryngeal “h” is not represented orthographically in Colonial Yucatec. Therefore, it is not
clear whether the he_-ch-ah example represents consonant deletion or a change to laryngeal “h.” The
orthographic rendition is as ambiguous in this respect as in the examples with “c” and “t” above.
In the fifth example, the two adjacent consonants are identical ejectives. Here, again, the first con-
sonant in the cluster seems to disappear. In Modern Yucatec, the first ejective in such a cluster would be
replaced by a glottal stop, which is the other laryngeal consonant for which there is no orthographic coun-
terpart in the Colonial alphabet.
In the sixth example, the two adjacent consonants are identical voiceless bilabials. Here, as in Modern
Yucatec, the first consonant disappears.
2.2.1.3. FRICATIVE CLUSTERS. The fricatives [s and š] behave like sonorants in Modern Yucatec; the first
consonant is always deleted in such clusters. The same pattern of deletion can be detected in Colonial
Yucatec:
(9)
Input
Output
Gloss
sus-s-ab-ac [súus-s-ab’-ak]
su_-s-ab-ac [súu_-s-ab’-ak]
it may be peeled
ix xan [iš šan]
i_ xan [i_ šan}
and also
2.2.2. OTHER CONSONANT CLUSTERS. When affixation brings non-identical consonants together, one of
them is usually deleted. If one of the consonants is a laryngeal, either [ʔ] or [h], it is the one deleted. If,
on the other hand, neither consonant is a largyngeal, then the processes are different for prefixes and
suffixes. In general, the consonant in the prefix is more susceptible to deletion than the initial consonant
in the root (Orie and V. Bricker 2000:292–293), whereas the final consonant in the root is more likely to be
deleted than the consonant in the suffix.
PHONOLOGY 25
2.2.2.1. PREFIXES. The examples in (10) show what happens when the third person possessive clitic uy is
prefixed to non-laryngeal initial nouns:
(10)
Input
Output
Gloss
uy-bel [uy-b’èel]
u-bel [u-b’èel]
his road
uy-cuch [uy-kùuč]
u-cuch [u-kùuč]
his burden
uy-hahil [uy-xàaxil]
u-hahil [u-xàaxil]
his truth
uy-kaba [uy-k’àab’aʔ]
u-kaba [u-k’àab’aʔ]
his name
uy-luumil [uy-lúʔumil]
u-lumil [u-lúʔumil]
his land
uy-mehen [uy-mèehen]
u-mehen [u-mèehen]
his son
uy-naa [uy-naʔ]
u-naa [u-naʔ]
his mother
uy-pacat [uy-pàakat]
u-pacat [u-pàakat]
his sight, eyes
uy-pop [uy-póop]
u-pop [u-póop]
his mat
uy-tħan [uy-t’àan]
u-tħan [u-t’àan]
his word
uy-yum [uy-yùum]
u-yum [u-yùum]
his father
Note that, in every case, it is the glide in the prefix that is deleted, not the initial consonant in the root. On
the other hand, if the initial consonant of the root is a laryngeal, either [ʔ] or [h], then the laryngeal, rather
than [y], is the one that is deleted:
(11)
Input
Output
Gloss
uy-ahau [uy-ʔahaw]
uy-ahau [uy-ahaw]
his ruler
uy-auat [uy-ʔawat]
uy-auat [uy-awat]
his shout
uy-ex [uy-ʔèeš]
uy-ex [uy-èeš]
his pants
uy-haal [uy-háʔal]
uy-aal [uy-áʔal]
its water
uy-heel [uy-héʔel]
uy-eel [uy-éʔel]
her egg
uy-hunil [uy-húʔunil]
uy-unil [uy-úʔunil]
his book
uy-it [uy-ʔìit]
uy-it [uy-ìit]
his anus
uy-oc [uy-ʔòok]
uy-oc [uy-òok]
his foot
uy-ol [uy-ʔóol]
uy-ol [uy-óol]
his heart
uy-otoch [uy-ʔotoč]
uy-otoch [uy-otoč]
his home
In other words, laryngeal consonants at the beginning of roots are weaker and therefore more susceptible
to deletion when preceded by another consonant.
The same thing happens when laryngeal-initial roots are preceded by the first- and second-person
singular clitics, inu (phonetic [iŋw]) and au (phonetic [aw]). In the first case, the cluster consists of three
consonants: [n], [w], and either [ʔ] or [h]. Laryngeal deletion resolves only part of the problem, reducing the
cluster from three to two consonants ([n] and [w]). In Colonial Yucatec, both the initial vowel and consonant
in [inw] could also be deleted, leaving [w] to carry the first-person meaning:
(12)
Input
Output
Gloss
inu-abil [inw-ʔáab’il]
u-abil [w-áab’il]
my grandchild
inu-alic [inw-ʔáʔalik]
u-alic [w-áʔalik]
I say it
inu-icnal [inw-ʔiknal]
u-icnal [w-iknal]
with me
inu-iɔin [inw-ʔíiȼ’in]
u-iɔin [w-íiȼ’in]
my younger sibling
26 PHONOLOGY
inu-ol [inw-ʔóol]
u-ol [w-óol]
my heart
inu-olah [inw-ʔóolax]
u-olah [w-óolax]
I want
inu-otoch [inw-ʔotoč]
u-otoch [w-otoč]
my house
Modern Yucatec does not permit the deletion of [in] to resolve such consonant clusters. Instead, the [n]
assimilates to the following labiovelar, yielding [iŋw] before laryngeal-initial roots (see 2.2.2.2.5. below).
The second-person prefix, au (phonetic [aw]), behaves exactly like the third-person prefix, uy (phonetic
[uy]) before laryngeal-initial roots in Colonial Yucatec (compare [13] with [11]):
(13)
Input
Output
Gloss
au-ex [aw-ʔèeš]
au-ex [aw-èeš]
your pants
au-haabil [aw-háʔab’il]
au-aabil [aw-áʔab’il]
your age
au-hula [aw-húʔulaʔ]
au-ula [aw-úʔulaʔ]
your visitor
au-hulel [aw-húʔulel]
au-ulel [aw-úʔulel]
you arrive
au-alic [aw-áʔalik]
au-alic [aw-áʔalik]
you say it
au-icnal [aw-ʔiknal]
au-icnal [aw-iknal]
with you
au-ilic [aw-ʔilik]
au-ilic [aw-ilik]
you see him
au-ohel [aw-ʔoxel]
/> au-ohel [aw-ohel]
you know it
au-ol [aw-ʔóol]
au-ol [aw-óol]
your heart
au-uy [aw-ʔúʔuy]
au-uy [aw-úʔuy]
you hear it
The laryngeal is deleted whether the antecedent glide is [w] or [y].
Note that inu and au also behave like uy before non-laryngeal initial consonants (compare [14] and [15]
with [10]):
(14)
Input
Output
Gloss
inu-cahal [inw-kàaxal]
in-cahal [in-kàaxal]
my town
inu-col [inw-kòol]
in-col [in-kòol]
my cornfield
inu-kaba [inw-k’àab’aʔ]
in-kaba [in-k’àab’aʔ]
my name
inu-kax [inw-k’áaš]
in-kax [in-k’áaš]
my forest
inu-luum [inw-lúʔum]
in-luum [in-lúʔum]
my land
inu-matan [inw-máatan]
in-matan [in-máatan]
my gift
inu-mejen [inw-mèexen]
in-mejen [in-mèexen]
my son
inu-pixan [inw-pìišan]
in-pixan [in-pìišan]
my soul
inu-tħan [inw-t’àan]
in-tħan [in-t’àan]
my word
inu-ɔib [inw-ȼ’íib’]
in-ɔib [in-ȼ’íib’]
my writing
inu-yum [inw-yùum]
in-yum [in-yùum]
my father
(15)
Input
Output
Gloss
au-ba [aw-b’ah]
a-ba [a-b’ah]
yourself
au-botic [aw-b’óʔotik]
a-botic [a-b’óʔotik]
you pay it
au-cuxtal [aw-kuštal]
a-kuxtal [a-kuštal]
your life
au-chi [aw-čiʔ]
a-chi [a-čiʔ]
your mouth
au-kab [aw-k’ab’]
a-kab [a-k’ab’]
your hand
au-kat [aw-k’áat]
a-kat [a-k’áat]
you want it
au-kuchul [aw-k’učul]
a-kuchul [a-k’učul]
you arrive
PHONOLOGY 27
au-lakob [aw-láak’óʔob’]
a-lakob [a-láak’óʔob’]
your relatives
au-mehen [aw-mèexen]
a-mehen [a-mèexen]
your son
au-takin [aw-tàak’in]
a-takin [a-tàak’in]
your money
au-tħan [aw-t’àan]
a-tħan [a-t’àan]
your word
au-yum [aw-yùum]
a-yum [a-yùum]
your father
In both sets of examples, the glide in the prefix is deleted, not the initial consonant of the root, contrasting
in this respect with the laryngeal-initial roots.
The first-person plural clitic pronoun is c (phonetic [k]). Because all roots and stems must begin with