Iran 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22, 23, 24, 25, 26, 27, 28, 29, 30, 31, 32, 33, 34
Islamic Party of Azerbaijan 1, 2, 3
Islamic
– scriptures 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8
– traditions 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22, see also discursive tradition
Islamic market 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6
Islamic movements 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6
Islamism 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6
Islamophobia 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6
Ismail, shah 1, 2, 3, 4, 5
Ismailis 1, 2
Ithnā ʿashariyya/ Twelver Shia Islam 1, 2, 3, 4
Ittihad, party 1, 2
Jadidism 1
Jewish/Jew 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18
jihad 1, 2, 3, 4, 5
Judaism 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10
Juma (mosque) community 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15
Kaʿba 1
Karbala 1, 2, 3
Khurramites 1
Koran 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22, 23, 24, 25, 26, 27, 28, 29, 30, 31, 32, 33
Kurban Bayram/ ʿId al-Aḍḥā; 1, 2
leadership 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16
Lenkorani, Fazil ayatollah 1, 2
Lévi-Strauss, Claude 1
‘lived Islam’ 1, 2, Chapter 3: 4
‘lived religion’ 1, 2, 3, 4, 5
maḏhab/Islamic school of law 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9
madrasa 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11
Mahdi 1, 2, 3
Manicheism 1, 2
marǧaʿ at-taqlīd 1, 2, 3
mawlā, pl. mawālī 1
Mecca 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6
Middle East 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9
migration/migrants 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10
Methodis 1
Mir Movsum Aga 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6
Miracles of the Koran 1
modern orthodoxy 1, 2, 3, 4
modernist(s) 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14
modernity 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8
Mongol 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6
moral development 1, 2
morality 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15
muftī 1, 2
Muhammad, Prophet 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9
Muḥarram 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10
muhur 1, 2, 3
muǧtahid 1
mullah 1, 2, 3, 4
murīd 1, 2, 3, 4, 5
muršid 1
Muslim Spiritual Board/ the Caucasus Muslim Board 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19
Nagorno-Karabakh 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9
namaz 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17
namus 1
Nardaran 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7
nationalism 1, 2, 3, 4
new religious movements 1, 2, 3
NGOs (non-governmental organizations) 1, 2, 3
Novruz 1, 2, 3
Nurcu/nurchular, see also fethullahci 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8
Nursi, Said 1, 2
‘official Islam’ 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10
‘official religion’ 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6
Orthodox church 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7
Pan-Turkism 1, 2
Pashazade, Allahshukur 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, see also sheikh-ul-islam
patriarchalism 1
Pew Research Center 1
pilgrimage 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16
pillars of Islam 1
pir /shrine 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22, 23, 24, 25, 26, 27, 28, 29, 30
political Islamist 1
‘popular Islam’ 1, 2, 3, 4
post-colonial 1
prayer see namaz
privatization of religion 1, 2
Prophet see Muhammad
Protestant 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6
public sphere 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14
qāḍī 1, 2
Qara Qoyunlu 1
Qasimoglu, Nariman 1, 2, 3
qualitative research 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7
radicalism 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12
Ramadan 1, 2
Ramadan Bayram 1
rational choice 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6
rationality and Islam 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8
refugees 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6
reformism 1, 2, 3, see also Jadidism
religiosity 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22, 23, 24, 25, 26, 27, 28, 29, 30, 31, 32, 33, 34, 35, 36, 37, 38, 39, 40
religious
– attendance 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6
– authority 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8
– behavior 1, 2, 3, 4, 5
– belief 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14
– change 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9
– field 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13
– firms see economics of religion
– lifestyle 1
– market/marketplace see economics of religion
– market theory/approach see economics of religion
– mobilization 1
– movements 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12
– pluralism 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17
– policy 1, 2, 3, 4, 5
– product see economics of religion
– rite 1, 2, 3, 4, 5
– service 1, 2, 3, 4, 5
– tradition 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22, 23, 24, 25, 26, 27, 28, 29, 30, 31; see also discursive tradition
risk 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6
Russia 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22, 23, 24, 25, 26, 27, 28, 29
Safavid 1, 2, 3
Safaviyya 1, 2, 3
saint 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, see also pir
sakkalilar 1
Salafism/Salafi/salafiyya 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 110,115, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22, 23, 24, 25, 26, 27, 28, 29, 30, 31, 32, 33
Saudi Arabia 1, 2, 3, 4, 5
sayyid 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6
scripture 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15
secular Muslims 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10
secular state 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13
secular tradition 1, 2, 3, 4, 5
Shamanism 1, 2,
Shamil, Imam 1, 2
Sharia/Islamic Law 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17
sheikh-ul-islam 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, see also Pashazade, Allahshukur
Shirvanshah 1
shrine see pir
Smith, Adam 1, 2
social change 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6
social network 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11
Soviet Union/USSR 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15
Stark, Rodney 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7
Sufi(sm) 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22, 23, 24, 25, 26, 27
Suleymanov, Gamet 1, 2
survey 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10
syncretic 1, 2, 3, 4
Tabriz 1, 2, 3, 4
Tagiyev, Z. 1
taqiyya 1, 2
ṭarīqa 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, see also Sufi
Tatar 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8
taʿziye 1, 2
terror/terrorism 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13
theology/theologians 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18
Tibi, Bassam 1
‘traditional Islam’ 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7,
trust 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14,
<
br /> Turkey 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22, 23, 24, 25,
Turkish 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15
– Modern Orthodoxy in Turkish Islam 1, 2, 3, 4, 5
– Turkish Islam 1, 2, 3, 4
Twelve Imams 1, 2, 3, 4 see also Ithnā ʿashariyya
ulama 1, 2, 3, 4, 5
‘unofficial Islam’ 1, 2, 3
‘untraditional Islam’ 1, 2, 3, 4,
umma 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8
ʿumra 1
United States/America 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13
Uzbekistan 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7
veil/veiling, see hijab
Wahhabism/Wahhabi 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, see also Salafism
walī 1
Weber, Max 1, 2
Yahya, Harun 1, 2
Yasaviyya 1
Zein, Abdul 1, 2
ziyārat 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12
Zoroastrian(ism) 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6
Endnotes
1 Robert B. Ekelund, Robert F. Hébert, Robert D. Tollison (2006) offer a comprehensive review of Adam Smith’s contribution to the economics of religion in chapter 2 of “The Marketplace of Christianity”.
2 One of the first influential complex conceptualisations of religiosity, proposed by Glock and Stark (1968) in a book “American Piety” (Mauss, 1998), made it possible to apply the term “religiosity” not only to an institutionalised sphere but also to other dimensions, such as belief, knowledge, experience, practice, and consequences.
3 The term was first used by Claude Lévi-Strauss and then employed in the sociology of religion by Thomas Luckmann (Dobbelaere, 1998) and Danièle Hervieu-Léger.
4 For a discussion on the secularization paradigm and its inner differences, see Zielińska (2009) or Bruce (2011).
5 An overview of the history, the main arguments and propositions of the market paradigm or the economics of religion is presented in (Iannaccone, 1998; Sacred Markets, 2002; Ekelund et al., 1996; Ekelund, Hébert, Tollison, 2006; Ekelund Jr., Tollison, 2011).
6 A recent and concise summary of the development of the anthropology of Islam is presented by Marranci (2008).
7 For a more general overview of Bourdieu’s writings on religion see, e. g., Dianteill (2003) and Rey (2004).
8 The discourse of pluralism and cosmopolitanism in the context of Baku is well analysed by Bruce Grant (2010).
9 The nuanced meanings of the term jihad in the Koran are far from the popular associations with the Islamic version of “holy war.” In fact, there are two other words in the Scripture that denote war and warring: qitāl, and ḥarb. The former is commonly used in the Koran to represent warring, including divinely ordained warring; its meaning is rooted in warlike conditions of nomadic life. The latter tends to mean “engaging in profane war.” On the other hand, the basic meaning of the root of jihad, j.h.d., does not refer directly to fighting; it is described in Arabic dictionaries as ,,exerting oneself and taking extraordinary pains, employing oneself vigorously and diligently” (Firestone, 2009, 308–309). In religious interpretation, the term jihad refers to the ethical message of Islam to strive for good deeds and to overcome evil. It was during the Arab conquests that the word jihad became the operative term for war authorised by Allah, and was developed in a doctrine by a jurist Muhammad as-Shaybani (d. 796). Nevertheless, this association with “holy war” is only one of a range of ideas the term jihad conveys (Firestone, 2009; Danecki, 2002a, 251–256).
10 Even though the Persian language and culture was influential in the Azeri literature for a long time, the history of written Azerbaijani has its roots in the thirteenth century (Azerbaijan, 2008, p. 98).
11 This pattern relates not only to Southern Caucasus. Sufism enjoyed tremendous popularity among societies on the frontiers of Islamic empire: in North Africa, Central Asia, and India (Lapidus, 2002, p. 171).
12 It is interesting to note that the policy of a religious war did not have a direct impact on non-Muslims. Christians, Jews, and even Indian pagans are mentioned among the groups which avoided mass killings at that bloody period (Yunusov, 2004, p. 78–79).
13 The Russian supremacy over Azerbaijan began in the first quarter of the 19th century. With the exception of a short democratic episode (1918–1920), it lasted till the end of the Soviet era in 1991. More precisely, only part of Azerbaijan was taken by the Russians. The Turkmenchay Treaty from 1828 confirmed the division of the Azerbaijani lands between Russian and Persian empires. At present the part that fell under Persian rule belongs all the time to Iran, and is sometimes referred to as Iranian Azerbaijan.
14 A review of these censuses can be found in Yunusov (2004, pp. 100–112).
15 For a detailed and nuanced view on the cooperation of some part of Azeri elite with the Russian see Mostashari (2006).
16 More on the topic of Soviet policies in regard to Islam in Azerbaijan can be found in Bedford (2009), Grant (2009), Rohoziński (2005), Saroyan (1997), Świętochowski (2006).
17 The dichotomy between “official” Islam of registered mosques and their staff on the one side, and the “unofficial”, “alternative” Islam with underground, private religious rituals on the other has already been criticised by numerous authors, e. g., by DeWesse (2002); Rasanayagam (2006b); Saroyan (1997a, 1997c), as cited in Rasanayagam (2011, p. 90). This approach simplifies the social reality, and as Rasanayagam claims, ,,the dichotomy (…) is produced within the Soviet regulatory framework itself rather than being an expression of differing theological interpretations or beliefs” (ibidem, p. 91).
18 The concept of ,,lived religion” characterises the religion of the people. It refers not so much to the Koranic concepts or orthodox legal tradition, but to actual beliefs and practices in Muslim societies, which exhibit extraordinary variances across the world.
19 The Muslims Religious Board for the Transcaucasus in Baku was only one of four such institutions in the USSR. Other Boards were located in Tashkent, Makhachkala, and in Ufa.
20 More on the complex spiritual life of the Kist community can be found in e. g., Kurtsikidze, Chikovani (2008, pp. 248–250).
21 More on the methodological controversies with surveys of religiosity in the Muslim context can be found in Wiktor-Mach (2012).
22 He is also called “At Aga,” which literally means “flesh man” because of his illness resulting from lack of calcium in his bones (Alakbarli, 2004).
23 The unorthodox attitude towards religious shrines is not a unique feature of the Caucasus. For example, in India it happens that Hindus pray at the tombs of pirs and Muslims, on the other hand, visit tombs of Hindu sadhus. I would like to thank an anonymous referee for this suggestion.
24 There were some small exceptions to this general trend, e. g. in October 1986 Baku hosted an international conference “Muslims for Peace,” which was partially an attempt to build a platform for dialogue and a network of Muslims from the Soviet Union and the Middle East (MESC, 1986, p. 148).
25 For a critique of such approaches, see the review of scholarship on Soviet and post-Soviet Islam by DeWesse (2002); Grant (2011); Kemper (2009); Rasanayagam (2011); Saroyan (1997).
26 For more information on Islamic education in Azerbaijan, see Hunner-Kreisel (2008).
27 For more information on the political sides of the conflict see, e. g., Bedford (2009) and Cornell (2006).
28 Efendi is also remembered and revered by the Kists of Chechen descent living in the Georgian Pankisi gorge. He made weighty contribution to the spread of Islam in that community. In one of Pankisi villages there is still a room where the saint lived. His followers, commonly referred to as murīds of the sheikh Efendi, gather every week to perform a silent ḏikr (ceremonial activity of the remembrance of the name of God) according to his teachings. Although the sheikh died in 1930s, he is still remembered locally as one of the greatest teachers of Islam. For more information on the practice of Islam among Kists and Chechens in Georg
ia, see Wiktor-Mach (2009).
29 The mosque was eventually registered in 2002, but its leader Suleymanov was not approved by the Caucasus Muslim Board (International Crisis Group, 2008).
30 The name is after the Kharijite sect that originated in the seventh century.
31 Sayyid Qutb was the leading intellectual of the fundamentalist Muslim Brotherhood.
32 This place occupies an important place in the social consciousness of the Azerbaijanis, as it commemorates people (“martyrs”) who lost their lives in clashes with enemies—Armenians and Soviets.
33 Apart from the Gülen’s followers, there are also other groups that develop and reinterpret Nursi’s ideas, as the Nurcu movement split itself after its founder’s death in 1960 (Yavuz, 2000, p. 14).
34 This term, meaning “service,” or “serving the community,” is preferred by the movement’s members themselves, as they do not want to put too much emphasis on its founder. Nevertheless, the term Gülen movement is widely used by scientists.
35 In 1992–1993, for the first time, a large number of believers took part in ʿĀšūrāʾ rituals at the Taza Pir mosque (Heyat, 2002).
36 I’m using the term “conversion” in the context of new pious Muslims, but I’m aware of the controversies surrounding it. A short but insightful discussion of the term’s connotations in the context of post-Soviet studies can be found at Pelkmans (2009, pp. 11–13).
37 The outline of the project, summary of its main contributors and the main findings can be found in Religion, Identity, Postsocialism (2010). Much of the work has also been turned into numerous articles and monographs.
38 The term “Transcaucasian” often refers only to three Caucasian republics, Georgia, Armenia, and Azerbaijan.
39 Using the label “Wahhabism” in the sense of dangerous opponents has a long tradition; it dates back to the very beginning of al-Wahhab’s movement in the eighteenth century.
40 An interesting story about the origin and history of the shrine can be found in Sharifov (1998).
41 Recently the Azeri government took steps against foreign TV series and films. A new regulation prohibiting foreign programs entered into force in May 2012. Allegedly it aims at protecting the local TV industry.
42 Constitution of the Republic of Azerbaijan, Section 3, Chapter 5, Article 85.
43 Similar developments in the relationship between religion and politics have taken place in Georgia and Armenia. Although, according to their constitutions, the church is separated from the state, each of these countries have established government institutions to oversee and regulate religious activity (Charles, 2009).
Religious Revival and Secularism in Post-Soviet Azerbaijan Page 33