History of Florence and of the Affairs of Italy

by Niccolo Machiavelli

Pisa, but the Florentines, by a treaty with Pistoia, withdrew her from

  obedience to him. Castruccio then besieged Pistoia, and persevered

  with so much vigor and resolution, that although the Florentines often

  attempted to relieve her, by attacking first his army and then his

  country, they were unable either by force or policy to remove him; so

  anxious was he to punish the Pistolesi and subdue the Florentines. At

  length the people of Pistoia were compelled to receive him for their

  sovereign; but this event, although greatly to his glory, proved but

  little to his advantage, for upon his return to Lucca he died. And as

  one event either of good or evil seldom comes alone, at Naples also

  died Charles duke of Calabria and lord of Florence, so that in a short

  time, beyond the expectation of their most sanguine hopes, the

  Florentines found themselves delivered from the domination of the one

  and the fear of the other. Being again free, they set about the

  reformation of the city, annulled all the old councils, and created

  two new ones, the one composed of 300 citizens from the class of the

  people, the other of 250 from the nobility and the people.

  The first was called the Council of the People, the other the Council

  of the Commune.

  CHAPTER VII

  The Emperor at Rome--The Florentines refuse to purchase Lucca, and

  repent of it--Enterprises of the Florentines--Conspiracy of the

  Bardi and the Frescobaldi--The conspiracy discovered and checked--

  Maffeo da Marradi appeases the tumult--Lucca is purchased by the

  Florentines and taken by the Pisans--The duke of Athens at

  Florence--The nobility determine to make him prince of the city.

  The emperor, being arrived at Rome, created an anti-pope, did many

  things in opposition to the church, and attempted many others, but

  without effect, so that at last he retired with disgrace, and went to

  Pisa, where, either because they were not paid, or from disaffection,

  about 800 German horse mutinied, and fortified themselves at

  Montechiaro upon the Ceruglio; and when the emperor had left Pisa to

  go into Lombardy, they took possession of Lucca and drove out

  Francesco Castracani, whom he had left there. Designing to turn their

  conquest to account, they offered it to the Florentines for 80,000

  florins, which, by the advice of Simone della Tosa, was refused. This

  resolution, if they had remained in it, would have been of the

  greatest utility to the Florentines; but as they shortly afterward

  changed their minds, it became most pernicious; for although at the

  time they might have obtained peaceful possession of her for a small

  sum and would not, they afterward wished to have her and could not,

  even for a much larger amount; which caused many and most hurtful

  changes to take place in Florence. Lucca, being refused by the

  Florentines, was purchased by Gherardino Spinoli, a Genoese, for

  30,000 florins. And as men are often less anxious to take what is in

  their power than desirous of that which they cannot attain, as soon as

  the purchase of Gherardino became known, and for how small a sum it

  had been bought, the people of Florence were seized with an extreme

  desire to have it, blaming themselves and those by whose advice they

  had been induced to reject the offer made to them. And in order to

  obtain by force what they had refused to purchase, they sent troops to

  plunder and overrun the country of the Lucchese.

  About this time the emperor left Italy. The anti-pope, by means of the

  Pisans, became a prisoner in France; and the Florentines from the

  death of Castruccio, which occurred in 1328, remained in domestic

  peace till 1340, and gave their undivided attention to external

  affairs, while many wars were carried on in Lombardy, occasioned by

  the coming of John king of Bohemia, and in Tuscany, on account of

  Lucca. During this period Florence was ornamented with many new

  buildings, and by the advice of Giotto, the most distinguished painter

  of his time, they built the tower of Santa Reparata. Besides this, the

  waters of the Arno having, in 1333, risen twelve feet above their

  ordinary level, destroyed some of the bridges and many buildings, all

  which were restored with great care and expense.

  In the year 1340, new sources of disagreement arose. The great had two

  ways of increasing or preserving their power; the one, so to restrain

  the emborsation of magistrates, that the lot always fell upon

  themselves or their friends; the other, that having the election of

  the rectors, they were always favorable to their party. This second

  mode they considered of so great importance, that the ordinary rectors

  not being sufficient for them, they on some occasions elected a third,

  and at this time they had made an extraordinary appointment, under the

  title of captain of the guard, of Jacopo Gabrielli of Agobbio, and

  endowed him with unlimited authority over the citizens. This man,

  under the sanction of those who governed, committed constant outrages;

  and among those whom he injured were Piero de' Bardi and Bardo

  Frescobaldi. These being of the nobility, and naturally proud, could

  not endure that a stranger, supported by a few powerful men, should

  without cause injure them with impunity, and consequently entered into

  a conspiracy against him and those by whom he was supported. They were

  joined by many noble families, and some of the people, who were

  offended with the tyranny of those in power. Their plan was, that each

  should bring into his house a number of armed men, and on the morning

  after the day of All Saints, when almost all would be in the temples

  praying for their dead, they should take arms, kill the Capitano and

  those who were at the head of affairs, and then, with a new Signory

  and new ordinances, reform the government.

  But, as the more a dangerous business is considered, the less

  willingly it is undertaken, it commonly happens, when there is any

  time allowed between the determining upon a perilous enterprise and

  its execution, that the conspiracy by one means or another becomes

  known. Andrea de' Bardi was one of the conspirators, and upon

  reconsideration of the matter, the fear of the punishment operated

  more powerfully upon him than the desire of revenge, and he disclosed

  the affair to Jacopo Alberti, his brother-in-law. Jacopo acquainted

  the Priors, and they informed the government. And as the danger was

  near, All Saints' day being just at hand, many citizens met together

  in the palace; and thinking their peril increased by delay, they

  insisted that the Signory should order the alarm to be rung, and

  called the people together in arms. Taldo Valori was at this time

  Gonfalonier, and Francesco Salviati one of the Signory, who, being

  relatives of the Bardi, were unwilling to summon the people with the

  bell, alleging as a reason that it is by no means well to assemble

  them in arms upon every slight occasion, for power put into the hands

  of an unrestrained multitude was never beneficial; that it is an easy

  matter to excite them to violence, but a difficult thing to restrai
n

  them; and that, therefore, it would be taking a more prudent course if

  they were to inquire into the truth of the affair, and punish the

  delinquents by the civil authority, than to attempt, upon a simple

  information, to correct it by such a tumultuous means, and thus hazard

  the safety of the city. None would listen to these remarks; the

  Signory were assailed with insolent behavior and indecent expressions,

  and compelled to sound the alarm, upon which the people presently

  assembled in arms. On the other hand, the Bardi and the Frescobaldi,

  finding themselves discovered, that they might conquer with glory or

  die without shame, armed themselves, in the hope that they would be

  able to defend that part of the city beyond the river, where their

  houses were situated; and they fortified the bridge in expectation of

  assistance, which they expected from the nobles and their friends in

  the country. Their design was frustrated by the people who, in common

  with themselves, occupied this part of the city; for these took arms

  in favor of the Signory, so that, seeing themselves thus

  circumstanced, they abandoned the bridges, and betook themselves to

  the street in which the Bardi resided, as being a stronger situation

  than any other; and this they defended with great bravery.

  Jacopo d'Agobbio, knowing the whole conspiracy was directed against

  himself, in fear of death, terrified and vanquished, kept himself

  surrounded with forces near the palace of the Signory; but the other

  rectors, who were much less blamable, discovered greater courage, and

  especially the podesta or provost, whose name was Maffeo da Marradi.

  He presented himself among the combatants without any fear, and

  passing the bridge of the Rubaconte amid the swords of the Bardi, made

  a sign that he wished to speak to them. Upon this, their reverence for

  the man, his noble demeanor, and the excellent qualities he was known

  to possess, caused an immediate cessation of the combat, and induced

  them to listen to him patiently. He very gravely, but without the use

  of any bitter or aggravating expressions, blamed their conspiracy,

  showed the danger they would incur if they still contended against the

  popular feeling, gave them reason to hope their complaints would be

  heard and mercifully considered, and promised that he himself would

  use his endeavors in their behalf. He then returned to the Signory,

  and implored them to spare the blood of the citizens, showing the

  impropriety of judging them unheard, and at length induced them to

  consent that the Bardi and the Frescobaldi, with their friends, should

  leave the city, and without impediment be allowed to retire to their

  castles. Upon their departure the people being again disarmed, the

  Signory proceeded against those only of the Bardi and Frescobaldi

  families who had taken arms. To lessen their power, they bought of the

  Bardi the castle of Mangona and that of Vernia; and enacted a law

  which provided that no citizen should be allowed to possess a castle

  or fortified place within twenty miles of Florence.

  After a few months, Stiatta Frescobaldi was beheaded, and many of his

  family banished. Those who governed, not satisfied with having subdued

  the Bardi and the Frescobaldi, as is most commonly the case, the more

  authority they possessed the worse use they made of it and the more

  insolent they became. As they had hitherto had one captain of the

  guard who afflicted the city, they now appointed another for the

  country, with unlimited authority, to the end that those whom they

  suspected might abide neither within nor without. And they excited

  them to such excesses against the whole of the nobility, that these

  were driven to desperation, and ready to sell both themselves and the

  city to obtain revenge. The occasion at length came, and they did not

  fail to use it.

  The troubles of Tuscany and Lombardy had brought the city of Lucca

  under the rule of Mastino della Scala, lord of Verona, who, though

  bound by contract to assign her to the Florentines, had refused to do

  so; for, being lord of Parma, he thought he should be able to retain

  her, and did not trouble himself about his breach of faith. Upon this

  the Florentines joined the Venetians, and with their assistance

  brought Mastino to the brink of ruin. They did not, however, derive

  any benefit from this beyond the slight satisfaction of having

  conquered him; for the Venetians, like all who enter into league with

  less powerful states than themselves, having acquired Trevigi and

  Vicenza, made peace with Mastino without the least regard for the

  Florentines. Shortly after this, the Visconti, lords of Milan, having

  taken Parma from Mastino, he found himself unable to retain Lucca, and

  therefore determined to sell it. The competitors for the purchase were

  the Florentines and the Pisans; and in the course of the treaty the

  Pisans, finding that the Florentines, being the richer people, were

  about to obtain it, had recourse to arms, and, with the assistance of

  the Visconti, marched against Lucca. The Florentines did not, on that

  account, withdraw from the purchase, but having agreed upon the terms

  with Mastino, paid part of the money, gave security for the remainder,

  and sent Naddo Rucellai, Giovanni di Bernadino de' Medici, and Rosso

  di Ricciardo de' Ricci, to take possession, who entered Lucca by

  force, and Mastino's people delivered the city to them. Nevertheless,

  the Pisans continued the siege, and the Florentines used their utmost

  endeavors to relieve her; but after a long war, loss of money, and

  accumulation of disgrace, they were compelled to retire, and the

  Pisans became lords of Lucca.

  The loss of this city, as in like cases commonly happens, exasperated

  the people of Florence against the members of the government; at every

  street corner and public place they were openly censured, and the

  entire misfortune was laid to the charge of their greediness and

  mismanagement. At the beginning of the war, twenty citizens had been

  appointed to undertake the direction of it, who appointed Malatesta da

  Rimini to the command of the forces. He having exhibited little zeal

  and less prudence, they requested assistance from Robert king of

  Naples, and he sent them Walter duke of Athens, who, as Providence

  would have it, to bring about the approaching evils, arrived at

  Florence just at the moment when the undertaking against Lucca had

  entirely failed. Upon this the Twenty, seeing the anger of the people,

  thought to inspire them with fresh hopes by the appointment of a new

  leader, and thus remove, or at least abate, the causes of calumny

  against themselves. As there was much to be feared, and that the duke

  of Athens might have greater authority to defend them, they first

  chose him for their coadjutor, and then appointed him to the command

  of the army. The nobility, who were discontented from the causes above

  mentioned, having many of them been acquainted with Walter, when upon

  a former occasion he had governed Florence for the duke of Calabria,

  thought they had now a
n opportunity, though with the ruin of the city,

  of subduing their enemies; for there was no means of prevailing

  against those who had oppressed them but of submitting to the

  authority of a prince who, being acquainted with the worth of one

  party and the insolence of the other, would restrain the latter and

  reward the former. To this they added a hope of the benefits they

  might derive from him when he had acquired the principality by their

  means. They, therefore, took several occasions of being with him

  secretly, and entreated he would take the command wholly upon himself,

  offering him the utmost assistance in their power. To their influence

  and entreaty were also added those of some families of the people;

  these were the Peruzzi, Acciajuoli, Antellesi, and Buonaccorsi, who,

  being overwhelmed with debts, and without means of their own, wished

  for those of others to liquidate them, and, by the slavery of their

  country, to deliver themselves from their servitude to their

  creditors. These demonstrations excited the ambitious mind of the duke

  to greater desire of dominion, and in order to gain himself the

  reputation of strict equity and justice, and thus increase his favor

  with the plebeians, he prosecuted those who had conducted the war

  against Lucca, condemned many to pay fines, others to exile, and put

  to death Giovanni de' Medici, Naddo Rucellai, and Guglielmo Altoviti.

  CHAPTER VIII

  The Duke of Athens requires to be made prince of Florence--The

  Signory address the duke upon the subject--The plebeians proclaim

  him prince of Florence for life--Tyrannical proceedings of the

  duke--The city disgusted with him--Conspiracies against the duke--

  The duke discovers the conspiracies, and becomes terrified--The

  city rises against him--He is besieged in the palace--Measures

  adopted by the citizens for reform of the government--The duke is

  compelled to withdraw from the city--Miserable deaths of Guglielmo

  da Scesi and his son--Departure of the duke of Athens--His

  character.

  These executions greatly terrified the middle class of citizens, but

  gave satisfaction to the great and to the plebeians;--to the latter,

  because it is their nature to delight in evil; and to the former, by

  thus seeing themselves avenged of the many wrongs they had suffered

  from the people. When the duke passed along the streets he was hailed

  with loud cheers, the boldness of his proceedings was praised, and

  both parties joined in open entreaties that he would search out the

  faults of the citizens, and punish them.

  The office of the Twenty began to fall into disuse, while the power of

  the duke became great, and the influence of fear excessive; so that

  everyone, in order to appear friendly to him, caused his arms to be

  painted over their houses, and the name alone was all he needed to be

  absolutely prince. Thinking himself upon such a footing that he might

  safely attempt anything, he gave the Signory to understand that he

  judged it necessary for the good of the city, that the sovereignty

  should be freely given to him, and that as the rest of the citizens

  were willing that it should be so, he desired they would also consent.

  The Signory, notwithstanding many had foreseen the ruin of their

  country, were much disturbed at this demand; and although they were

  aware of the dangerous position in which they stood, that they might

  not be wanting in their duty, resolutely refused to comply. The duke

  had, in order to assume a greater appearance of religion and humanity,

  chosen for his residence the convent of the Minor Canons of St. Croce,

  and in order to carry his evil designs into effect, proclaimed that

  all the people should, on the following morning, present themselves

  before him in the piazza of the convent. This command alarmed the

  Signory much more than his discourse to them had done, and they

  consulted with those citizens whom they thought most attached to their