Ayodhya Revisited

by Kunal Kishore

  Dean Mahomet has given a very interesting but saddening account of Shuja-ud-daula’s demise. Dean Mahomet’s book ‘The Travels of Dean Mahomet’ contains ‘a series of letters to a friend’. It was published in 1793-94. This was the first book ever written and published by an Indian in English. The following is the account of the background of Shuja-ud-daula’s sad end:

  “Some time before Sujah-doulah’s death, he repeatedly sent to Mulnahoffis [Maulana Hafiz Rahmat Khan], Nawab of the Rohellas [Rohillas], for the customary tribute, which the latter, on consulting his Officers, not only refused to pay, but even threatened, vi et armis (i.e. by force and arms), to oppose him. Sujah-doulah, without delay, having acquainted General Champion of his conduct, was reinforced by him, and marched with his brave auxiliaries to the Rohellas, where he met the numerous troops of the enemy on the field of battle, and warmly engaged them, until victory inclining to our side, conferred on us her unfading laurels, as the need of military virtue. Col. William Ann. Bailie, then Major of artillery, distinguished himself by his intrepid zeal and gallantry in this expedition. A great part of the enemy’s army were killed; the rest fled, and some of them were pursued and taken. General Champion returned with his men to head quarters, at Belgram; and Sujah-doulah directed his course to the very palace of Mulnahoffis, who was also in the number of the slain, and compelled his daughter, a beautiful young woman, whom he found in one of the grand apartments to come along with him to Oude. Having placed this unfortunate Lady in his seraglio, where nine hundred pining beauties, with their attendants, were already immured, he forced her to yield to his licentious desires, but purchased his enjoyment at a dear rate, as his life was the forfeit of it. The violated female, with a soul, the shrine of purity, like that of the divine Lucretia, whose chastity will ever adorn the historic page, fired with indignation at such unmanly treatment, grew frantic with rage, and disdaining life after the loss of honour, stabbed her brutal ravisher with a lancet, which she afterwards plunged into her own bosom, and expired. Notwithstanding the dangerous wound he received, by the appointment of Heaven, from the avenging hand of injured innocence, he might have lingered some time longer in life, had he kept within the bounds of moderation, by restraining the impetuosity of his unruly passions. But his career was pleasure, to which he gave such a loose, that his recent wound opened, and bleeding afresh, reduced him to a state of debility that terminated in his death. On account of his elevated rank in human life, his obsequies were conducted with great pomp and ceremony; and his funeral formed a pageant procession, in which his officers and soldiers walked in solemn pace, to the sounds of pensive music. After his interment, the women who composed his seraglio laid aside their jewels and ornaments, to denote, at least, in appearance, their sorrow on this mournful occasion.”

  The Nawab died in 1775 A.D.

  (5) Asaf-ud-daula (1775-97 A.D.)

  After the death of his father Shuja-ud-daula in 1775, Asaf-ud-daula, also known as Muhammad Yahya Mirza Amani, being the eldest son, ascended the throne. He was a very liberal Nawab and known for his munificence and therefore this proverb was prevalent – ‘Jisko na de maulā, usko de Asaf-ud-daula’ , i.e. he, who does not get from Allah, gets something from Asaf-ud-daula. He transferred his capital from Faizabad to Lucknow in the year 1775 and turned it into a town parexcellence in every sphere. In the beginning of his reign the East India Company under Warren Hastings harassed him a lot financially but he overcame it after Hastings was recalled in 1785. Asaf-ud-daula knew well that in the wake of the fast rising power of the East India Company and imposition of harsh treaties on Awadh, he was not going to marvel in military skill. So, he took to measures of relief, art and architecture. In 1784 there was a severe drought in Awadh. The Nawab started the construction of Imambara to provide relief to the hungry and needy people. He is credited to have constructed the Asafi Masjid and the Roomi Darwaza in Lucknow where he shifted his capital from Faizabad in 1775 A.D.

  Asaf-ud-daula heralded the composite culture of Awadh known as Ganga-Jamuni tehzib. His court was glittering with the jewels of poetry and learning. The glory of the great Mughal court in Delhi faded before the grand darbar of Asaf-ud-daula. He was the first Nawab who never visited the Mughal court. On the contrary, Prince Jawan Bakt, second son of the Mughal Emperor Shah Alam, visited Lucknow in 1784 and was well received by the Nawab who gave him a bride and an annual honorarium of rupees three lakhs. In his court was flourishing the urbane Urdu language and there was a revival of interest in ‘masnavi’, a long narrative poem with its root in Persian but now its branch in Urdu. Though Asaf-ud-daula was a very liberal, large-hearted ruler, yet the Shia clergy were trying their best to have the ascendancy. But he never allowed it to happen during his reign.

  During the time of Asaf-ud-daula the construction of temples took place on a large scale. The famous Hanuman temple in Aliganj was constructed during his reign by Lala Jatmal in 1783. Raja Tikait Rai built many temples and tanks at Lucknow. The famous Jagannath temple at Lucknow is said to have been built at his behest. The temple was granted a big chunk of land. It is interesting to note that the spiral of the temple had a crescent which was a testimony to the communal harmony. Many Hindu saints were warmly welcomed by him. Baba Kalyangiri left Hardwar and established Kalyangiri temples at Lucknow. Famous saints Baba Gomti Das and Baba Hazra as well as Sant Waldi Saheb, said to be the eleventh descendent of Sant Kabir, were honoured by this magnanimous monarch. Many Jain temples, too, were built during his rule.

  Asaf-ud-daula’s most favourite attendant after his ascendancy on the throne was Bhawani Mahra, a Kahar who was the unofficial treasurer of the Nawab and hence was nicknamed ‘Raja Mahra’. In 1792 he appointed Tikait Rai, a Srivastava Kayastha, as his Vazir. In 1795 Tikait Rai was removed from this post on the insistence of East India Company. In his place Jhao Lal was appointed Vazir. But in 1797 East India Company forced him to remove Jhao Lal also against his will. Surat Singh and Thaparchand, too, held important posts in finance department during his reign. Even the palanquin-bearers, namely Moti Singh, Maiku Singh, Shobha Singh and Bhola Singh enjoyed special status and had the permission to attend the court. However, he did not have cordial relations with his mother and grandmother, known as Bahu Begums who enjoyed enormous wealth. Initially, he was in confrontation with them and later when they were harassed by Warren Hastings, he did not come to their rescue. But the Bahu Begums were very unpopular amongst subjects, particularly Hindus. This popular couplet reflected their image in Faizabad-Ayodhyā:

  अवध बसन को मन चहै, पै बसिये केहि ओर।

  तीन दुष्ट एहि में रहैं, वानर बेगम चोर।।

  Asaf-ud-daula died in September 1797 and with him died the age of the golden communal harmony, which was properly called Gan¢gā-Jamunī Tehzib. From 1722 when Sa’adat Khan became the first Nawab of Awadh to the death of the fourth ruler Asaf-ud-daula in 1797, all the four rulers made no discrimination on the ground of creed and therefore there was a galaxy of great Hindu administrators from Nawal Rai to Tikait Rai. The construction of temples from Ayodhyā to Lucknow continued with the co-operation of Nawabs. Peace and prosperity prevailed during these Nawabs.

  In this book we have produced three pictures of Svargadvāra mosque. The first painting of Hodges is of the year 1783 A.D. and that of William Daniell in 1789 A.D. When we compare these two photographs, we find that during this period of six years many temples have been built in front of the Svargadvāra mosque on the bank of the Sarayū river. When it is further scrutinized, it is seen that some top portion of a minar of Svargadvāra mosque is broken. And the third photograph of recent time shows that it is badly damaged.

  The present condition of the subsequently damaged mosques is shown below.

  Svargadvāra mosque at Ayodhyā in dilapidated condition.

  In fact, many Muslim writers lamented after 1855 A.D. that the severe damage to the Svargadvāra mosque a
nd the Treta Ke Thakur mosque was they signed of the bad days of Islam. Now the question arises when these mosques were subjected to extensive attack and partial demolition. It could only happen during the period from the first Nawab Sa’adat Khan to the Nawab Asaf-ud-daula fourth, i.e. from 1722 to 1795. They were very liberal in religious outlook and it appears that they were reconciled to the fact that Ayodhyā was a Hindu city of utmost importance. Therefore, they first changed the capital from Ayodhyā to Faizabad and then to Lucknow. Extensive damage to two mosques built by Aurangzeb was one of the reasons for alarm in the Muslim clergy who were instrumental in preparing factitious inscriptions and handing them over to Buchanan.

  (6) Wazir Ali Khan (1797–1798)

  After the death of Asaf-ud-daula his son Wazir Ali Khan, also known as Asif Jah Mirza, ascended the throne. Asaf-ud-daula had presented Wazir Ali to various nobles and company officials, including the Resident as his son and heir and invested him with the nominal title of Diwan during his lifetime to give him greater legitimacy. Therefore, the East India Company confirmed Wazir Ali’s accession.

  Wazir Ali, though in his late teens, started acting independently. He did not allow much interference of the company and nobles in his administration. Therefore, the nobles started urging the Company to depose Wazir Ali on the ground of illegitimacy. They circulated the rumour that Asaf-ud-daula was impotent and Wajir Ali was not his son. They alleged that either Asaf-ud-daula had purchased the child in infancy or some servant had impregnated Wazir Ali’s mother. But so long as Asaf-ud-daula lived, there was no rumour about Wajir Ali’s illegitimate birth. Even if it is supposed that Wazir Ali was not the legitimate son of Asaf-ud-daula, he was at least his adopted son and entitled to the throne. But the Company forcibly and arbitrarily deposed Wazir Ali in Januay 1798. Wazir Ali was sent to exile in Benaras, where he was offered an annual pension of 1,50,000/- rupees. But he declined the pension offer and rebelled against the Company. He killed several British officials and with an army of 6,000 men marched to retrieve the independence of Awadh. He was defeated and met a tragic end. He was on the Ayodhyā throne for merely six months.

  (7) Sa’adat Ali Khan II (1798–1814)

  Sa’adat Ali Khan II, also known as Yamin-ud-daula, a half-brother of Asaf-ud-daula, a stooge who enjoyed the Company’s hospitability for more than 20 years, was enthroned on the Awadh gaddi in January 1798 and remained Nawab until his death in July 1814. He had been under the patronage of the Company for more than 20 years. He had been shown such honour as being included in the Governor General’s recommendation for the birthday party of the King of England. Nevertheless, his elevation to the throne was beyond his own expectation. Therefore, he was totally obliged to the Company which took advantage of this situation and forced him to sign a treaty which was, if not the death-warrant, then certainly a brain-haemorrhage that crippled the economy, territory and liberty of the Kingdom of Awadh. Half of the territory of Awadh was ceded to the Company in the name of safeguarding its borders. According to the treaty the Nawab had to pay an enhanced twenty lakh rupees for the annual ‘subsidy’ of company troops in Awadh. The Company collected rupees twelve lakhs as a cost of enthroning him in place of his nephew Wazir Ali. The Company got the right to interfere in the internal administration in the name of good governance and all correspondences between the Nawab and any outside State were to be carried on with the knowledge and concurrence of the Company.

  During the rule of Sa’adat Ali Khan the Shia clergy got supremacy under the leadership of Sayyid Dildar Ali Nasirbandi. They adopted a consistent hostility towards the Hindus and at times against the Sunnis. The golden days of the communal harmony during the period of Asaf-ud-daula and his three predecessors were gone now. During the rule of Sa’adat Ali Khan a serious communal riot took place in Lucknow in 1807 A.D. Thereafter, they started exerting their claims on the Hindu shrines and places of worship. In the book ‘Roots of North Indian Shiaism in Iran and Iraq; religion and state in Awadh, 1722-1859’ the author Cole Juan Ricardo has analysed the attitude of the Shia clergy toward the Hindus in the following words:

  “A second issue was the attitude of Shi‘i clerics, government officials, and laypersons toward Hindus. The clerical attitude can be easily summarized. Sayyid Dildar ‘Ali Nasirabadi harbored an almost violent animosity toward Hindus, arguing that the Awadh government should take stern measures against them. He divided unbelievers into three kinds, those (harbi) against whom Muslims must make war, those (dhimmi) who have accepted Muslim rule and pay a poll-tax, and those (musta’min) whom their Muslim rulers have temporarily granted security of life. He insisted that Imami Shi‘ism accepted only Jews and Christians as protected minorities (dhimmis), and even they could only achieve this status if they observed the ordinances governing it. He differed with Sunni schools that considered Hindus a protected minority.

  He wrote that Muslims could only grant infidels personal security (aman) in a country they ruled for one year, lamenting that the government had long treated as grantees of personal security the Hindus of northern India, who openly followed their idolatrous religion, drinking wine, and sometimes even mating with Sayyid women. He complained that the irreligious Sunni Mughal rulers of India neither made war against the Hindus nor forced them to accept Islam. Legally, nonetheless, the lives and property of Hindus could be licitly taken by Muslims.” (p. 225)

  It appears that Buchanan’s survey was made during this Nawab’s genure.

  (8) Abul-Muzaffar Ghazi-ud-din Haydar Khan (1814–1827)

  Sa’adat Ali Khan died in July 1814 and he was succeeded by his son Gahziuddin Haidar. On his accession the treasury contained 14 crores of rupees. Haidar helped the Company in every war against the Gurkhas, the Pindaris and the Marathas. The Governor General, Lord Hastings was quite pleased with his helping hand and hence encouraged the Nawab Haidar to shake off the titular yoke of the Mughal hegemony. Thus, the Nawab Haidar became a king on 19th October, 1819 by assuming the title of Padshah. For the first time in the history of mediaeval Awadh coin was struck and Khutba read in his name. He spent four crores of rupees and sent gifts to the Khalifa and other dignitaries inside the country and abroad. He appointed an able man Agha Mir as his Prime Minister. He was efficient, tactful and dignified, and enjoyed the confidence of the Mughal King and the British Resident. Haidar took keen interest in the administration of Awadh in the initial eight years but, later on, he depended much on his Prime Minister and the Resident. He kept good relations with the Mughals too. He married his son and heir with a daughter of the Mughal family to keep the Mughals in good humour as well to enhance his prestige. He provided a fairly good administration minus the frequent interference of the Resident. He died on 20th October, 1827. He kept the royal dignity intact and made progress in every sphere including art, culture and architecture. His fiscal policy resulted in reducing the surplus amount in the royal treasury.

  (9) Nasir-ud-din Haidar Shah Jahan (1827–1837)

  After his death his son Nasir-ud-din Haidar (Abul-Mansur Qutb-ud-din Sulaiman Jah) became Nawab and continued until 1837 when the latter’s uncle Muhammad Ali Shah ascended the throne. Henry Lawrence wrote about him, “Engaged in every species of debauchery, and surrounded by wretches, English, Eurasian and Native of the lowest description, his whole reign was one continued satire upon the subsidiary and protected system.” He was always surrounded by sycophants and parasites, and his favourites of both the sexes used to sway his decisions. European associates of no reckoning enjoyed more clout in his court through Wilayati Mahal Begum than his Prime Minister. Moreover, he was a very communal monarch. In 1829 he forced circumcision on a Hindu boy, even though his family members had changed their idea of converting to Shiaism. When the Resident Ricketts protested, he boasted that he had a divine right to dispose of his subjects in any manner he wished. In protest, provoked Hindus defiled a mosque in Rikabganj, Haider sent troops which plundered Hindu residents including women and destroyed all 47 Hindu temples in that quarter.
The entire population of 3,000 was forced to flee from the area. It was on the intervention of the Resident that peace and order was restored in the locality. In 1814 an amount of rupees 14 crore was lying in the royal treasury but now, in 1837, it was reduced to 70 lakh rupees only.

  (10) Muhammad Ali Shah (1837–1842)

  Nasir-ud-din suddenly died on 7th July, 1837. Since he died issueless, there was confusion in succession after his death. Earlier, he had avowed two sons but they were disowned subsequently. However, the dowager Begum supported one of the pretended sons Muna Jaun and succeeded in enthroning him to the gaddi. But the Britishers wanted a puppet in Awadh. So they selected a 70-year-old, a half-invalid Nasir-ud-daulah, the third son of the grandfather of the deceased monarch Nasiruddin for succession. They enacted a palace coup with their armed men. The Padshah Begum, Muna Jaun and many members in her support were captured after a bloody skirmish in which many lives were lost. Padshah Begum and Muna Jaun were sent out of Lucknow as Company prisoners. Instead, an imbecile, docile and senile person, Nasir-ud-daulah, who had a crippled physique due to chronic rheumatism and who had never dreamt of royalty, was brought from obscurity and enthroned in the new name of Muhammad Ali Shah. But before ascending the throne he had to sign a humiliating treaty which forced him to be guided by the Company in the governance of his Kingdom. Though this treaty was disallowed by the Court of Directors, the decision was kept secret and when it was communicated to the King after the second rejection, it was done in a distorted manner. The treaty always hung over the head of Muhmmad Ali Shah like the sword of Damocles. During his reign also communal tension prevailed and his heir apparent Amjad Ali Mirza played a prominent role in harassing the Hindus. In November 1840 when the Hindus defiled a mosque of a landlord with pig’s blood, Amjad Ali took a very active part in retaliation which resulted in killing a large number of cows, profaning temples and damaging Hindus’ shops.