29 Paul-Louis Caylar et al., “Digital in Industry: From Buzzword to Value Creation,” McKinsey, August 2016, https://www.mckinsey.com/business-functions/digital-mckinsey/our-insights/digital-in-industry-from-buzzword-to-value-creation
30 James Manyika et al., “Digital America: A Tale of the Haves and Have-Mores,” McKinsey Global Institute, December 2015, https://www.mckinsey.com/industries/high-tech/our-insights/digital-america-a-tale-of-the-haves-and-have-mores
31 “The Digital Transformation of Industry,” Roland Berger Strategy Consultants, March 2015, https://www.rolandberger.com/en/Publications/The-digital-transformation-industry.html
32 Manyika et al., “Digital America.”
33 “Digital Transformation Consulting Market Booms to $23 Billion,” Consultancy, May 30, 2017, https://www.consultancy.uk/news/13489/digital-transformation-consulting-market-booms-to-23-billion
34 “2018 Revision to World Urbanization Prospects,” United Nations, May 16, 2018, https://www.un.org/development/desa/publications/2018-revision-of-world-urbanization-prospects.html
35 Ramez Shehadi et al., “Digital Cities the Answer as Urbanisation Spreads,” National, February 3, 2014, https://www.thenational.ae/business/digital-cities-the-answer-as-urbanisation-spreads-1.472672
36 “Factsheet,” AI Singapore, 2018, https://www.aisingapore.org/media/factsheet/
37 “UAE National Innovation Strategy,” United Arab Emirates Ministry of Cabinet Affairs, 2015.
38 Leslie Brokaw, “Six Lessons from Amsterdam’s Smart City Initiative,” MIT Sloan Management Review, May 25, 2016, https://sloanreview.mit.edu/article/six-lessons-from-amsterdams-smart-city-initiative/
39 “The 13th Five-Year Plan,” US-China Economic and Security Review Commission, February 14, 2017, https://www.uscc.gov/sites/default/files/Research/The%2013th%20Five-Year%20Plan_Final_2.14.17_Updated%20%28002%29.pdf
40 “Digital Business Leadership,” Columbia Business School Executive Education, n.d., https://www8.gsb.columbia.edu/execed/program-pages/details/2055/ERUDDBL
41 “Driving Digital Strategy,” Harvard Business School Executive Education, n.d., https://www.exed.hbs.edu/programs/digs/Pages/curriculum.aspx
42 “MIT Initiative on the Digital Economy,” MIT Sloan School of Management, n.d., http://ide.mit.edu
43 Gerald C. Kane, “‘Digital Transformation’ Is a Misnomer,” MIT Sloan Management Review, August 7, 2017, https://sloanreview.mit.edu/article/digital-transformation-is-a-misnomer/
44 “Introducing the Digital Transformation Initiative,” World Economic Forum, 2016, http://reports.weforum.org/digital-transformation/unlocking-digital-value-to-society-building-a-digital-future-to-serve-us-all/
45 “Societal Implications: Can Digital Create Value for Industry and Society?,” World Economic Forum, June 2016, http://reports.weforum.org/digital-transformation/wp-content/blogs.dir/94/mp/files/pages/files/dti-societal-implications-slideshare.pdf
46 Anthony Stephan and Roger Nanney, “Digital Transformation: The Midmarket Catches Up,” Wall Street Journal, January 19, 2018, http://deloitte.wsj.com/cmo/2018/01/19/digital-transformation-the-midmarket-catches-up/
47 Anja Steinbuch, “We Don’t Measure Productivity Growth Correctly,” T-systems, March 2016, https://www.t-systems.com/en/best-practice/03-2016/fokus/vordenker/erik-brynjolfsson-463692
48 David Rotman, “How Technology Is Destroying Jobs,” MIT Technology Review, June 12, 2013, https://www.technologyreview.com/s/515926/how-technology-is-destroying-jobs/
49 “Digital Transformation of Industries: Societal Implications,” World Economic Forum, January 2016, http://reports.weforum.org/digital-transformation/wp-content/blogs.dir/94/mp/files/pages/files/dti-societal-implications-white-paper.pdf
50 Derek Thompson, “Airbnb and the Unintended Consequences of ‘Disruption,’” The Atlantic, February 17, 2018, https://www.theatlantic.com/business/archive/2018/02/airbnb-hotels-disruption/553556//
Chapter 3
1 Jacques Bughin et al., “Notes from the AI Frontier: Modeling the Impact of AI on the World Economy,” McKinsey Global Institute, September 2018, https://www.mckinsey.com/featured-insights/artificial-intelligence/notes-from-the-ai-frontier-modeling-the-impact-of-ai-on-the-world-economy; and James Manyika et al., “Unlocking the Potential of the Internet of Things,” McKinsey, June 2015, https://www.mckinsey.com/business-functions/digital-mckinsey/our-insights/the-internet-of-things-the-value-of-digitizing-the-physical-world
2 Louis Columbus, “Roundup of Cloud Computing Forecasts, 2017,” Forbes, April 29, 2017, https://www.forbes.com/sites/louiscolumbus/2017/04/29/roundup-of-cloud-computing-forecasts-2017
3 Ibid.
4 Dave Cappuccio, “The Data Center Is Dead,” Gartner, July 26, 2018, https://blogs.gartner.com/david_cappuccio/2018/07/26/the-data-center-is-dead/
5 “Cisco Global Cloud Index: Forecast and Methodology, 2016–2021,” Cisco, November 19, 2018, https://www.cisco.com/c/dam/en/us/solutions/collateral/service-provider/global-cloud-index-gci/white-paper-c11-738085.pdf
6 Brandon Butler, “Deutsche Bank: Nearly a Third of Finance Workloads Could Hit Cloud in 3 Years,” Network World, June 14, 2016, https://www.networkworld.com/article/3083421/microsoft-subnet/deutsche-bank-nearly-a-third-of-finance-workloads-could-hit-cloud-in-3-years.html
7 “Multicloud,” Wikipedia, last updated February 18, 2019, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Multicloud
8 Accuracy is reported as recall—i.e., what percentage of the historic engine failures were identified. Precision is the percentage of the time an engine failure actually occurred.
9 The training process is an optimization problem that often uses an algorithm called “stochastic gradient descent” to minimize the error between the output and the actual training data point.
10 Similar to machine learning, deep learning uses optimization algorithms such as stochastic gradient descent to set weights for each of the layers and nodes of the network. The objective is to minimize the difference between the network output and the actual training data point.
Chapter 4
1 Michael Armbrust et al., “A View of Cloud Computing,” Communications of the ACM 53, no. 4 (April 2010): 50–58.
2 IBM, Data Processor (White Plains, NY: IBM Data Processing Division, 1966).
3 John McCarthy, “Memorandum to P. M. Morse Proposing Time Sharing,” Stanford University, January 1, 1959, https://web.stanford.edu/~learnest/jmc/timesharing-memo.pdf
4 Control Program-67 / Cambridge Monitor System (GH20-0857-1), IBM, October 1971.
5 “Connectix Virtual PC to Be Offered by Top Mac CPU Manufacturers,” Free Library, August 5, 1997, https://www.thefreelibrary.com/Connectix+Virtual+PC+to+be+Offered+by+Top+Mac+CPU+Manufacturers%3B+Mac…-a019646924
6 VMware, “VMware Lets Systems Operate Side by Side,” reproduced from USA Today Online, November 3, 1999, https://www.vmware.com/company/news/articles/usatoday_1.html
7 “About Us,” Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency, n.d., https://www.darpa.mil/about-us/timeline/arpanet
8 Paul McDonald, “Introducing Google App Engine + Our New Blog,” Google Developer Blog, April 7, 2008, https://googleappengine.blogspot.com/2008/04/introducing-google-app-engine-our-new.html
9 “Microsoft Cloud Services Vision Becomes Reality with Launch of Windows Azure Platform,” Microsoft, November 17, 2009, https://news.microsoft.com/2009/11/17/microsoft-cloud-services-vision-becomes-reality-with-launch-of-windows-azure-platform/
10 “IBM Acquires SoftLayer: The Marriage of Private and Public Clouds,” IBM, 2013, https://www.ibm.com/midmarket/us/en/article_cloud6_1310.html
11 Peter Mell and Tim Grance, The NIST Definition of Cloud Computing (Gaithersburg, MD: National Institute of Standards and Technology, 2011).
12 Mark Russinovich, “Inside Microsoft Azure Datacenter Hardware and Software Architecture,” Microsoft Ignite, September 29, 2017, https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Lv8fDiTNHjk
13 “Gartner Forecasts Worldwide Public Cloud Revenue to Grow 17.
3 Percent in 2019,” Gartner, September 12, 2018, https://www.gartner.com/en/newsroom/press-releases/2018-09-12-gartner-forecasts-worldwide-public-cloud-revenue-to-grow-17-percent-in-2019
14 “Cisco Global Cloud Index: Forecast and Methodology, 2016–2021,” Cisco, November 19, 2018, https://www.cisco.com/c/dam/en/us/solutions/collateral/service-provider/global-cloud-index-gci/white-paper-c11-738085.pdf
15 State of the Internet: Q1 2017 Report, Akamai, 2017, https://www.akamai.com/fr/fr/multimedia/documents/state-of-the-internet/q1-2017-state-of-the-internet-connectivity-report.pdf
16 “Gartner Forecasts Worldwide Public Cloud Services Revenue to Reach $260 Billion in 2017,” Gartner, October 12, 2017, https://www.gartner.com/en/newsroom/press-releases/2017-10-12-gartner-forecasts-worldwide-public-cloud-services-revenue-to-reach-260-billionin-2017; and “Public Cloud Revenue to Grow.”
17 Armbrust et al., “View of Cloud Computing.”
18 “British Airways IT Outage Caused by Contractor Who Switched off Power: Times,” CNBC, June 2, 2017, https://www.cnbc.com/2017/06/02/british-airways-it-outage-caused-by-contractor-who-switched-off-power-times.html
19 “Amazon Compute Service Level Agreement,” Amazon, last updated February 12, 2018, https://aws.amazon.com/ec2/sla/
Chapter 5
1 Catherine Armitage, “Optimism Shines through Experts’ View of the Future,” Sydney Morning Herald, March 24, 2012, https://www.smh.com.au/national/optimism-shines-through-experts-view-of-the-future-20120323-1vpas.html
2 Gareth Mitchell, “How Much Data Is on the Internet?,” Science Focus, n.d., https://www.sciencefocus.com/future-technology/how-much-data-is-on-the-internet/
3 “A History of the World in 100 Objects: Early Writing Tablet,” BBC, 2014, http://www.bbc.co.uk/ahistoryoftheworld/objects/TnAQ0B8bQkSJzKZFWo6F-g
4 “Library of Ashurbanipal,” British Museum, n.d., http://www.britishmuseum.org/research/research_projects/all_current_projects/ashurbanipal_library_phase_1.aspx
5 Mostafa El-Abbadi, “Library of Alexandria,” Encyclopaedia Britannica, September 27, 2018, https://www.britannica.com/topic/Library-of-Alexandria
6 Mike Markowitz, “What Were They Worth? The Purchasing Power of Ancient Coins,” CoinWeek, September 4, 2018, https://coinweek.com/education/worth-purchasing-power-ancient-coins/
7 Christopher F. McDonald, “Lost Generation: The Relay Computers,” Creatures of Thought (blog), May 10, 2017, https://technicshistory.wordpress.com/2017/05/10/lost-generation-the-relay-computers/
8 “Delay Line Memory,” Wikipedia, last updated December 20, 2018, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Delay_line_memory#Mercury_delay_lines
9 “Timeline of Computer History: Memory & Storage,” Computer History Museum, n.d., http://www.computerhistory.org/timeline/memory-storage/
10 “Timeline of Computer History: 1980s,” Computer History Museum, n.d., http://www.computerhistory.org/timeline/1982/#169ebbe2ad45559efbc6eb357202f39
11 “The History of Computer Data Storage, in Pictures,” Royal Blog, April 8, 2008, https://royal.pingdom.com/2008/04/08/the-history-of-computer-data-storage-in-pictures/
12 “Western Digital Breaks Boundaries with World’s Highest-Capacity microSD Card,” Western Digital, August 31, 2017, https://www.sandisk.com/about/media-center/press-releases/2017/western-digital-breaks-boundaries-with-worlds-highest-capacity-microsd-card
13 Gil Press, “A Very Short History of Big Data,” Forbes, May 9, 2013, https://www.forbes.com/sites/gilpress/2013/05/09/a-very-short-history-of-big-data/
14 Doug Laney, “3D Data Management: Controlling Data Volume, Velocity, and Variety,” META Group, February 6, 2001, http://blogs.gartner.com/doug-laney/files/2012/01/ad949-3D-Data-Management-Controlling-Data-Volume-Velocity-and-Variety.pdf
15 Seth Grimes, “Unstructured Data and the 80 Percent Rule,” Breakthrough Analysis, August 1, 2008, http://breakthroughanalysis.com/2008/08/01/unstructured-data-and-the-80-percent-rule/
16 Steve Norton, “Hadoop Corporate Adoption Remains Low: Gartner,” Wall Street Journal, May 13, 2015, https://blogs.wsj.com/cio/2015/05/13/hadoop-corporate-adoption-remains-low-gartner/
Chapter 6
1 Bernard Marr, “The Amazing Ways Google Uses Deep Learning AI,” Forbes, August 8, 2017, https://www.forbes.com/sites/bernardmarr/2017/08/08/the-amazing-ways-how-google-uses-deep-learning-ai/#1d9aa5ad3204
2 Cade Metz, “AI Is Transforming Google Search. The Rest of the Web Is Next,” Wired, February 4, 2016, https://www.wired.com/2016/02/ai-is-changing-the-technology-behind-google-searches/
3 Steven Levy, “Inside Amazon’s Artificial Intelligence Flywheel,” Wired, February 1, 2018, https://www.wired.com/story/amazon-artificial-intelligence-flywheel/
4 A. M. Turing, “Computing Machinery and Intelligence,” Mind 59, no. 236 (October 1950): 433–60.
5 “Dartmouth Workshop,” Wikipedia, last updated January 13, 2019, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dartmouth_workshop
6 John McCarthy et al., “A Proposal for the Dartmouth Summer Research Project on Artificial Intelligence,” JMC History Dartmouth, August 31, 1955, http://www-formal.stanford.edu/jmc/history/dartmouth/dartmouth.html
7 James Pyfer, “Project MAC,” Encyclopaedia Britannica, June 24, 2014, https://www.britannica.com/topic/Project-Mac
8 “Project Genie,” Wikipedia, last updated February 16, 2019, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Project_Genie
9 John Markoff, “Optimism as Artificial Intelligence Pioneers Reunite,” New York Times, December 8, 2009, http://www.nytimes.com/2009/12/08/science/08sail.html
10 “USC Viterbi’s Information Sciences Institute Turns 40,” USC Viterbi, April 2012, https://viterbi.usc.edu/news/news/2012/usc-viterbi-s356337.htm
11 Will Knight, “Marvin Minsky Reflects on a Life in AI,” MIT Technology Review, October 30, 2015, https://www.technologyreview.com/s/543031/marvin-minsky-reflects-on-a-life-in-ai/
12 Louis Anslow, “Robots Have Been about to Take All the Jobs for More Than 200 Years,” Timeline, May 2016, https://timeline.com/robots-have-been-about-to-take-all-the-jobs-for-more-than-200-years-5c9c08a2f41d
13 “Workhorse of Modern Industry: The IBM 650,” IBM Archives, n.d., https://www-03.ibm.com/ibm/history/exhibits/650/650_intro.html
14 “iPhone X: Technical Specifications,” Apple Support, September 12, 2018, https://support.apple.com/kb/SP770/
15 “Apple iPhone X: Full Technical Specifications,” GSM Arena, n.d., https://www.gsmarena.com/apple_iphone_x-8858.php
16 Marvin Minsky and Seymour Papert, Perceptrons: An Introduction to Computational Geometry (Cambridge: MIT Press, 1969)
17 Henry J. Kelley, “Gradient Theory of Optimal Flight Paths,” Ars Journal 30, no. 10 (1960): 947–54.
18 Ian Goodfellow et al., Deep Learning (Cambridge: MIT Press, 2016), 196.
19 James Lighthill, “Artificial Intelligence: A General Survey,” Lighthill Report (blog), survey published July 1972, http://www.chilton-computing.org.uk/inf/literature/reports/lighthill_report/p001.htm
20 Pedro Domingos, The Master Algorithm: How the Quest for the Ultimate Learning Machine Will Remake Our World (New York: Basic Books, 2015).
21 Peter Jackson, Introduction to Expert Systems (Boston: Addison-Wesley, 1998).
22 Bob Violino, “Machine Learning Proves Its Worth to Business,” InfoWorld, March 20, 2017, https://www.infoworld.com/article/3180998/application-development/machine-learning-proves-its-worth-to-business.html
23 R. C. Johnson, “Microsoft, Google Beat Humans at Image Recognition,” EE Times, February 18, 2015, https://www.eetimes.com/document.asp?doc_id=1325712
24 Jacques Bughin et al., “Artificial Intelligence: The Next Digital Frontier,” McKinsey Global Institute, June 2017.
25 Michael Porter and James Heppelmann, “How Smart Connected Products Are Transforming Competition,” Harvard Business Review, November 2014; and Porter and Heppelmann, “How Smart Connected Products Are Transforming Companies,” Harvard Business Review, October 2015.
26 J. Meiste
r and K. Mulcahy, “How Companies Are Mastering Disruption in the Workplace,” McGraw Hill Business Blog, October 2016, https://mcgrawhillprofessionalbusinessblog.com/2016/10/31/how-companies-are-mastering-disruption-in-the-workplace/
27 Maureen Dowd, “Elon Musk’s Billion-Dollar Crusade to Stop the A.I. Apocalypse,” Vanity Fair, March 2017, https://www.vanityfair.com/news/2017/03/elon-musk-billion-dollar-crusade-to-stop-ai-space-x
28 Dan Dovey, “Stephen Hawking’s Six Wildest Predictions from 2017—from a Robot Apocalypse to the Demise of Earth,” Newsweek, December 26, 2017, http://www.newsweek.com/stephen-hawking-end-year-predictions-2017-755952
29 Richard Socher, “Commentary: Fear of an AI Apocalypse Is Distracting Us from the Real Task at Hand,” Fortune, January 22, 2018, http://fortune.com/2018/01/22/artificial-intelligence-apocalypse-fear/
30 “Gartner Says by 2020, Artificial Intelligence Will Create More Jobs Than It Eliminates,” Gartner, December 13, 2017, https://www.gartner.com/en/newsroom/press-releases/2017-12-13-gartner-says-by-2020-artificial-intelligence-will-create-more-jobs-than-it-eliminates
31 “Artificial Intelligence Will Dominate Human Life in Future: PM Narendra Modi,” Economic Times, May 10, 2017, https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/politics-and-nation/artificial-intelligence-will-dominate-human-life-in-future-pm-narendra-modi/articleshow/58606828.cms
32 Jillian Richardson, “Three Ways Artificial Intelligence Is Good for Society,” iQ by Intel, May 11, 2017, https://iq.intel.com/artificial-intelligence-is-good-for-society/
33 Gal Almog, “Traditional Recruiting Isn’t Enough: How AI Is Changing the Rules in the Human Capital Market,” Forbes, February 9, 2018, https://www.forbes.com/sites/groupthink/2018/02/09/traditional-recruiting-isnt-enough-how-ai-is-changing-the-rules-in-the-human-capital-market
34 2017 Annual Report, AI Index, 2017, http://aiindex.org/2017-report.pdf
35 AI was a major theme at Davos in 2017, 2018, and 2019. See, for example, “Artificial Intelligence,” World Economic Forum annual meeting, January 17, 2017, https://www.weforum.org/events/world-economic-forum-annual-meeting-2017/sessions/the-real-impact-of-artificial-intelligence; “AI and Its Impact on Society,” Business Insider, January 25, 2018, http://www.businessinsider.com/wef-2018-davos-ai-impact-society-henry-blodget-microsoft-artificial-intelligence-2018-1; and “Artificial Intelligence and Robotics,” World Economic Forum Archive, n.d., https://www.weforum.org/agenda/archive/artificial-intelligence-and-robotics/
Digital Transformation Page 25