1989- The Struggle to Create Post-Cold War Europe
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Gorbachev, Raisa, 3, 107–8, 166, 182, 204
Government of National Responsibility, 97
Grachev, Andrei, 25–26
Grass, Günter, 70
Grätz, Manfred, 45
Great Britain: European security and policy of, 26–27; as excluded from process, 123; opposition to German unification, 27–28; refusal to provide economic assistance to USSR, 177. See also Thatcher, Margaret
Green Party, 75
Grönemeyer, Herbert, 13
Gueffroy, Chris, 12, 15–16, 42
Guigou, Elisabeth, 147
Gulf War, 188, 193, 195, 210, 211
Gysi, Gregor, 95
Habermas, Jürgen, 70, 150
Hartmann, Peter, 100, 296n71, 300n50
Haughey, Charles, 82, 147
Havel, Václav, 19, 105–6, 296n60
Havemann, Robert, 88–90, 90, 92, 94, 98; Communist Party of Germany and, 89
Helsinki, meeting between Bush and Gorbachev in, 193, 194
Helsinki Final Act (1975), 64, 145, 162–63, 164, 167, 168, 182–83, 184; borders and, 103; freedom of alliance and the “Helsinki Principle,” 162–63, 164, 167–68, 182–84
Helsinki Principle, 168
Hensel, Jana, 1, 3, 288n5
heroic models: common European home, concept of, 5, 7, 54, 106, 199, 214; East German support for, 88–91, 115–18, 143, 152–53, 172, 198; election as referendum on, 143; Gorbachev’s, 7–8, 91–92, 101–2, 104–7, 118, 137, 143, 150, 154–55, 164, 172, 198–200; institutional replacement of both NATO and Warsaw Pact, 104–5; prefab model as competition for, 202
Honecker, Erich: and desire for a “German Tiananmen” in Leipzig, 18–20, 45; Gorbachev on, 293n30
Horn, Gyula, 29, 31, 140. See also Hungary
Hungary, 11, 15, 25, 31, 172, 205; liberalization in, 29, 140; NATO and, 140; open border and emigration from East Germany, 29–31, 297n79
Hurd, Douglas, 4, 80, 100–101, 106, 121, 139, 145, 154–55, 177, 188, 189, 201; access to documents of, and interview with, xiii–xiv; observations during negotiations, 193. See also Great Britain
Hussein, Saddam, 168
Hutchings, Robert, 22
IFM (Initiative for Peace and Human Rights), 89, 92
INF (Intermediate-Range Nuclear Forces) Treaty, 44, 156
Ingram, Edward, 300n12
Initiative for Peace and Human Rights (IFM), 89, 92
integration, European: economic and monetary, 82–83, 147, 149; economics of, 145; French interest in, 65, 76, 82, 83; German reunification linked to, 8, 65, 82–83, 145, 146–47, 149; multi-institutional structure for, 77–78
Iraq, 168, 188
Ireland, EC summit in Dublin, 147–48, 160
Jäger, Harald, 42–43
Jahn, Roland, 11, 13; deportation of, 11, 14, 92; role in Leipzig march, 20
Jaruzelski, Wojciech, 25, 28, 52, 137–38, 155
Jitkoff, Andrew, 107–8
John Paul II, Pope, 60
Kaestner, Uwe, 126
Kehlmann, Daniel, 48
Kennan, George, 204
Kennedy, John F., 1, 52
key actors, use of term, 48–49
KGB (Soviet state security force): Cold War tensions and, 12; Putin’s posting to Dresden and observations of events, 19, 86, 93–94, 195, 197, 214; SED and, 102
Khrushchev, Nikita, 89
Kissinger, Henry, 23–24, 106, 294n44
Klein, Johnny, 50
Kochemasov, Vyacheslav, 80–81, 157
Kohl, Hannelore, 126, 128
Kohl, Helmut, 3, 84; access to state documents of, xiii; affiliation with Christian Democratic Union (CDU), 28, 51, 52, 56, 103–4, 119, 132–33, 135–36, 138–43, 160; attitude toward four-power meetings, 81–82; Baker and, 81; Berlin Wall opening as unexpected by, 50, 61–62; Brandt and, 142; Bush and, 49, 73–75, 78–79, 114, 121–22, 126–29, 148, 157, 208, 210; on Bush and Reagan, 24; campaign in East Germany, 132–33, 135–36, 138–43, 148; Delors and, 188; Gorbachev and, 72, 103, 112, 150–51, 160, 169, 177–87, 183, 191, 202, 206, 208; as key actor, 49; Mitterrand and, 62, 64, 65, 82–83, 95–96, 138–39, 145, 147–48, 149, 209; Modrow and, 99; on monetary and economic union, 81–85, 104, 112; NATO membership as non-negotiable, 188; personal and biographical information, 51; as political candidate during unification process, 83, 85, 189; political skill of, 138–39; as politician, 75, 82, 87, 103–4, 132–33, 135–36, 138–43, 148, 200–201; popular enthusiasm for unification recognized by, 85–87; prefab model and, 8, 200, 202; and revivalist model, 7, 85; round table members’ meeting with, 115; speedy unification pursued by, 86–87, 95, 99, 112, 120, 123, 139, 145, 147, 187, 188–89, 200, 202, 211; Stalin era treaties invoked by, 202; Ten-Point-Program proposed by, 72, 73, 75–76, 79–80, 95, 198; Thatcher and, 61, 100–101, 146–47, 152, 176; use of media by, 112, 113, 181, 184, 201
Kopper, Hilmar, 159, 160
Kornblum, John, 206–7
Krenz, Egon, 18–19, 35, 36, 47, 62, 297n76; on Tiananmen Square, 292n20
Kryuchkov, Vladimir, 102, 185
Kuwait, invasion of, 168, 188
Kvizinski, Yuli, 157
Laeken meeting between Bush and Kohl, 67, 78–79
Lafontaine, Oskar, 141, 189, 196
Lautenbach, Robin, 40, 43
Leipzig: nonviolent response to protests in, 20, 21–22, 47; October marches in, 19–20, 21; protests in, 34; and rise in East German self-confidence, 29; risk of “German Tiananmen” in, 18–20, 22
Li Peng, 18
Lithuania, 101, 137, 144, 155, 158, 162, 174
Li Zemin, 18
Maastricht treaty, 147–48
Malta Summit, 49, 67, 77–78, 161
maps: Cold War Europe, 30; divided Germany, 38; major Cold War borders and cities, 17; sectors of Berlin with course of wall, 41
März, Rainer, 43
Mascolo, Georg, 43
masculinity and diplomacy, 168
Matlock, Jack F., 155, 168, 294n44
Mazowiecki, Tadeusz, 50, 60–61, 63, 65, 103, 128, 137–38, 143–44, 184, 185
Meckel, Markus, 92, 152–53, 171–72, 187, 198, 300n7, 290n101
media: Baker’s expert use of, 54, 109–10, 124, 176; Bornholmer Street opening and, 43; as catalyst, 63; coverage of Berlin Wall opening, 63; dissident press, 89, 92; East German leadership as insulated from media reports, 44–45, 211; East German Politburo and, 36–37; East German self-confidence bolstered, 33–34; economic crisis in East Germany reported by, 112; expulsion of foreign journalists, 20; Kohl’s use of the press, 112, 113, 181, 184, 201; and Leipzig march, 20–21; Poland’s expert use of the media, 61; press conference on November 9 and, 36–37, 39; propaganda and the GDR, 18–19; reports on Berlin Wall opening, 39–40; role in fostering dissent, 33; and Tiananmen Square events, 18. See also Television
Medvedev, Dmitri, 207–8
Merkel, Angela, 1–2, 92, 104, 133
Mielke, Erich, 20
missiles: “dual-capable” systems, 191–92; German protests against, 12–13; short-range, 12–13, 26–27, 46, 156; “Star Wars” missile defense program, 12; U.S. deployment of, 11, 12–13, 26–27, 46, 208
Mitterrand, François: access to primary documents, xiii; on Bush, 24; diplomatic “auditioning” of ideas by, 61, 147–48; Eurocentric vision of, 95–96; European integration as long-term goal of, 80, 82–83, 138; experiences in a German prison camp, 48; and Franco-German relations, 57; as key actor, 50, 56, 60; Kohl and, 62, 64, 65, 82–83, 95–96, 138–39, 145, 147–48, 149, 209; monetary union as goal of, 82–85, 138, 147–48, 149; personal and biographical information, 57; Poland as point of disagreement between Kohl and, 138–39; prefab model and, 147–48; as president of EC, 56, 64–65; role in German unification, 3, 7, 28, 50, 56, 60, 64–65; Thatcher and, 58, 61, 64–65, 80, 100
models, competing visions of unification, 5–6; key actors and, 48–49, 77; as reactions against change, 210–11. See also heroic models; prefab model; restoration model; revivalist model
Modrow, Hans, 70,
84, 99, 103, 112, 115; decision to relaunch the Stasi, 96–97, 99, 112; elections and loss of office, 99; Kohl and, 76, 99
Moltke, Helmuth James, Graf, 63
Momper, Walter, 52, 53
monetary union: as campaign issue, 104, 132–35, 148, 173, 200; as catalyst for European integration, 82–83, 147, 149; common currency in Europe, 148, 160, 209, 214; difficulties caused by, 144–45, 203; EC endorsement of German, 173, 177; exchange rate as issue, 144–45, 154, 156, 200; implementation of, 144–45, 160, 162, 177; Kohl’s support for, 81–85, 104; Maastricht treaty and, 147–48; Mitterrand’s interest in, 82–85, 138, 148, 149; opposition in East Germany to, 117; popular support in East Germany for, 104, 117, 119, 133–34; prefab model and, 148; Soviet troops and, 134, 156, 158–59, 170; trade treaties and, 145, 157; unification linked to, 82–85, 112, 133–34, 135, 144, 148, 149, 156, 160, 194; West German opposition to, 112
Mulroney, Brian, 135
nationalism: German, 53; in Soviet Union, 109, 137, 144
National Security Council (NSC), 22, 66–67, 105, 111, 124–25, 161, 174, 209, 298n113. See also Blackwill, Robert; Gates, Robert; Rice, Condoleezza; Scowcroft, Brent; Zelikow, Philip
National Security Review 3, 24
NATO (North Atlantic Treaty Organization), 3–4; Bush administration and, 26, 111–12, 123–26, 128, 174–76; CSCE as alternative to, 175–76; de Maizière and opposition to joining, 152; demilitarization and, 153; East European states’ desire for ties to, 140; East German desire for withdrawal of, 91; EC as potential rival for, 146; European integration and institutional framework, 77–78; expansion as key issue during negotiations, 55–56, 104, 107, 110–15, 123–26, 137, 144, 174, 182–83, 209, 212–14; “French solution,” 128; Genscher on, 104; German unification endorsed by, 27–28, 64; Helsinki Principle and freedom of alliance, 182–83, 184; heroic model and institutional replacement of, 104–5; internal German alliance politics and, s103–4; “money carrot” as incentive for Soviet withdrawal from East Germany, 206, 212; NATO-Russia Founding Act, 206–7; nuclear weapons policy and, 27; political vs. military objectives of, 204–5; prefab model and, 8, 148; reform as incentive for Gorbachev, 151, 160–61, 169, 170–71, 173–77, 193; resentment caused by expansion of, 195, 204–9, 212, 214; as resistant to change, 46; role in negotiations, 49; round table in East Germany and opposition to membership in, 115–16; Russia as potential member of, 205; security mission of, 204–5; Soviet acceptance of German membership in, 180, 182–83; Soviet membership in, 173; Soviet opposition to, 154–55, 158–59, 205, 211–12; troop deployment after unification, 192; unification of Germany as expansion of, 104; united Germany as member of, 110–11, 114, 124–25, 128, 144, 148, 154–56, 180, 182–83, 188, 196, 209, 211; West Germany as member of, 65, 104; Wörner as head of, 49, 56
Naumann, Klaus, 125
Nazism (National Socialism), 57, 136; East German parliamentary denunciation of the Holocaust, 152; as frame of reference, 31, 36, 76, 82, 86; as frame of reference during unification process, 28, 115, 132, 178–79; as frame of reference for Europeans, 57–59, 63; reparations and, 136; unification conflated with Anschluss, 28, 115, 132, 178–79; W.W.II as experiential frame for Mitterrand, Thatcher, and Shevardnadze, 57–59, 75–76
Németh, Miklos, 29–31
Neuer, Walter, 126
neutrality, 300n10; East German support for, 152, 172, 187, 192, 291n11; Gorbachev’s proposal for German, 106, 113, 121–22, 162–63, 199; Helsinki Final Act and right to, 162
New Forum, 89, 92, 97, 116
Nixon, Richard, 77
North Atlantic Treaty Organization. See NATO (North Atlantic Treaty Organization)
nuclear weapons: arms control agreements, 15, 23, 26, 67, 77–78, 110, 164; balance of power and, 158; Bush administration policies, 22, 26, 78, 110, 163, 174, 191–92; denuclearization as issue, 77, 110, 124–25, 153, 184, 191–92; “dual-capable” missile systems and, 191–92; East German support for denuclearization, 153; and fear of nuclear war, 12, 27; German renunciation of, 184; German support for denuclearization, 124–25; Gorbachev’s policies, 26, 77, 78, 110, 163, 212; INF treaty, 156; Reagan administration policies, 15, 22–23, 26, 77, 110; SNF (Short-range nuclear forces), 26–27, 28, 290; Soviets and denuclearization, 124–25, 184, 212; Thatcher’s policies, 67; West German opposition to, 26–27. See also missiles
Obama, Barack, 1–2, 2, 4
October 9 protest in Leipzig, 19–20
Oder-Neisse border, 13, 131, 144, 150
Ottawa conference, 121–24
Party of Democratic Socialism (PDS): SED reconstituted as, 96
peace activism, 12–13; in East Germany, 11
perestroika: Gorbachev’s joke about, 179; Kissinger on, 23
Pöhl, Karl-Otto, 144, 154
Poland, 15; 2 + 4 forum and, 127, 144; border issues with, 60–61, 64, 103, 127–29, 131, 136, 144, 184, 185, 202; economic aid to, 83, 103, 127–28, 202; economic incentives during negotiations, 185; election in, 25; foreign debt as economic burden in, 64, 171, 185, 296n60; German forgiveness of debt, 64; German unification as challenge for, 60–61; impact of Berlin Wall opening on, 50; Kohl’s diplomatic visits during opening of Berlin Wall, 50–52, 63–64; NATO membership of, 205; reparations to, 136; as rival for western financial aid, 60–61; Solidarity, 11, 18, 25, 28, 46, 49, 50, 60, 139; Soviet Union as unlikely ally of, 139; troop deployment in East Germany, 155; unification under Article 23 as objectionable to, 132; U.S. missile deployment in, 208; U.S. policy regarding, 25, 127–29
Poppe, Gerd, 92, 94, 115, 116, 137, 142–43
Poppe, Ulrike, 92, 93
Portugalov, Nikolai, 70–72
“post-historical” era in politics, 201
Powell, Charles, xiii–xiv, 64, 146,
Powell, Colin, 55, 175
prefab model, 7–9, 119, 194; Basic Law and, 8, 119, 130, 131–32, 148, 200; consequences of, 203–4; economic institutions and, 119; EC support of, 147–49; elections as referendum on, 143, 148, 150, 200–201; German opposition to, 152–53; German popular support for, 119, 200; as known quantity, 200; perpetuation of Cold War geopolitics and, 201; rapid unification and, 120, 200; U.S. support of, 148. See also Monetary union
property ownership: confiscation of property, 170, 203, 299n90; as defined in round table constitution, 7, 116–17, 118, 119, 198, 202; as issue during troop withdrawal negotiations, 182, 187; litigation after unification regarding, 203
property pluralism, 7, 116–17, 118, 119, 198, 202
protests: growth of East German self-confidence linked to, 34–35; massive participation in, 68; nonviolence of, 94; as potential trigger for violence, 97
Prunskiene, Kazimiera, 158
Putin, Lyudmila, 86
Putin, Vladimir, 3, 4, 19; KGB post in Dresden and observation of events, 19, 86, 93–94, 195, 197, 214; resentment of NATO expansion as factor in leadership by, 195, 207–9, 214
quadripartite control. See Four Powers
Quayle, Dan, 55
Radomski, Aram, 20–21
Reagan, Ronald, 1, 46; anti-Reagan sentiment, 11, 12; arms reduction and, 77; Gorbachev and, 15; lack of interest in Europe, 24
Red Army, 89, 101, 161, 169, 195; Gorbachev and, 155–56; troops stationed in East Germany, 2, 26, 80, 97, 134, 156, 158–59, 170, 190 (See also troops, withdrawal of)
refugees and emigration from East Germany: East German response to, 69–70; economic assistance provide to, 68; mass emigration, 68; Ten-Point-Plan and, 73; trains from Warsaw and Prague, 31–33; U.S. assistance provided for, 54
reparations: to Poland, 127, 136–37, 202; restoration model and, 197; reunification and renewed controversy over, 103–4; Stalin era treaties invoked to reject, 202; as unresolved issue from W.W.II, 62, 64, 127
restoration model, 7, 86, 101; 2 + 4 framework as alternative to, 110; abandonment of, 82–85, 86; Bush and lack of support for, 66–67; cooperative failures among four power, 129; election as referendum on, 143; four-power control and, 7, 62, 65–68, 80, 86; Gorbachev’s proposal and dev
elopment of, 66–68; Mitterrand and, 68, 83, 85; reparations and, 197; and subordination of West Germany, 66; Thatcher and, 67; United States and, 66–67, 80. See also Four Powers
revivalist model, 7, 62, 72–73; abandonment of, 85, 86, 95; election as referendum on, 143; Kohl’s abandonment of, 85; Ten-Point-Program and confederation of states, 72, 73, 75–76, 79–80, 94–95, 198
Rice, Condoleezza, 55, 66, 71, 77, 113–14, 124, 125, 168
Röller, Wolfgang, 159, 160
Romania, 22, 29, 68, 111
Rosenzweig, Luc, 76
Ross, Dennis, 111, 123, 138, 140
round table in East Germany, 70, 115; approaching elections and limited authority of, 99, 115–18, 135; composition and mission of, 92–95; constitution drafted by, 49, 91, 94–95, 116–17, 298n23; dissidents as participants in, 92, 95, 97; foreign policy and, 115–16; Modrow’s government and, 96–97, 115; popular response to works of, 117–18; Stasi/Nasi and, 93