28. Illinois Department of Public Health, “West Nile Virus,” http://www.dph.illinois.gov/topics-services/diseases-and-conditions/west-nile-virus, accessed Nov. 8, 2016.
29. “Rantoul,” Urbana Union, May 20, 1858.
30. Champaign County Regional Planning Commission website, https://ccrpc.org/data/poverty-rate/, accessed March 22, 2018.
31. For the backstory, see Robert Michael Morrissey, “The Power of the Ecotone: Bison, Slavery, and the Rise and Fall of the Grand Village of the Kaskaskia,” Journal of American History 102 (Dec. 2015): 667–92.
Chapter 1: Between Place and Space: The Pioneering Politics of Locality
1. “Muster Roll of a Company of Kickapoo Indians who have Emigrated West . . . ,” Records Relating to Indian Removal—Other Removal Records, Miscellaneous Muster Roll ca. 1832–46, Record Group 75, Bureau of Indian Affairs, National Archives, Washington, DC.
2. “Spanish Avarice,” Urbana Union, Aug. 11, 1853.
3. “Sufferings of Prussian Family,” Urbana Union, July 13, 1854.
4. “New Homes,” Urbana Union, May 19, 1855.
5. Na she nan et al. to Col. Cumming, Supt. of Indian Affairs, St. Louis, Nov. 21, 1855, Folder: Kickapoo 1855–56, Letters Received by the Office of Indian Affairs, 1824–81, Kickapoo Agency, 1855–1876 (Washington, DC: National Archives Microfilm Publications, 1958), Roll 371.
6. “The Gazette,” Champaign Daily Gazette, Dec. 26, 1899.
7. Kristin Hoganson, Consumers’ Imperium: The Global Production of American Domesticity, 1865–1920 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2007).
8. On modernist denigration of the local, see Arif Dirlik, “The Global and the Local,” in Global/Local: Cultural Production and the Transnational Imaginary, ed. Rob Wilson and Wimal Dissanayake (Durham: Duke University Press, 1996), 21–45. On the local as a site of resistance to the global, see Michael Geyer and Charles Bright, “World History in a Global Age,” American Historical Review 100 (Oct. 1995): 1034–60. On local transformation as a part of globalization, see Anthony Giddens, “The Globalizing of Modernity,” in The Global Transformations Reader: An Introduction to the Globalization Debate, ed. David Held and Anthony McGrew (Cambridge, MA: Polity Press, 2000), 92–98. On the production of locality, see Arjun Appadurai, Modernity at Large: Cultural Dimensions of Globalization (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1996), 178–99.
9. Joseph B. Herring, Kenekuk: The Kickapoo Prophet (Lawrence: University of Kansas Press, 1988).
10. George R. Nielsen, The Kickapoo People (Phoenix: Indian Tribal Series, 1975), 2.
11. Nielsen, The Kickapoo People, 12. On Kickapoo migrations from Wisconsin to Illinois and Indiana by 1700, see R. David Edmunds, “A History of the Kickapoo Indians in Illinois from 1750–1834” (master’s thesis, Illinois State University, 1966).
12. Margaret Carlock Harris, “Along the Salt Fork River,” Journal of the Illinois State Historical Society 39 (Dec. 1946): 475.
13. William B. Brigham, “The Grand Kickapoo Village and Associated Fort in the Illinois Wilderness,” in Indian Mounds and Villages in Illinois, (1960; reprint, Urbana: University of Illinois, 1982), 91–100.
14. On the Vermillion Kickapoos’ connections to the Potawatomis, see Herring, Kenekuk, 111; James A. Clifton, “Potawatomi,” Northeast, vol. 15, Handbook of North American Indians, ed. Bruce G. Trigger (Washington, DC: Smithsonian Institution, 1978), 725–42; Ives Goddard, “Mascouten,” Northeast, vol. 15, Handbook of North American Indians, ed. Bruce G. Trigger (Washington, DC: Smithsonian Institution, 1978), 668–72. On ties to Potawatomis, see James A. Clifton, The Prairie People: Continuity and Change in Potawatomi Indian Culture, 1665–1965 (Lawrence: The Regents Press of Kansas, 1977).
15. On marriages between Mexican men and Kickapoo women, see Robert E. Ritzenthaler and Frederick A. Peterson, The Mexican Kickapoo Indians (Milwaukee: Milwaukee Public Museum, 1956), 15. On a white woman and her children living among Kickapoos in 1823, see John Dunn Hunter, Manners and Customs of Several Indian Tribes Located West of the Mississippi (Philadelphia: J. Maxwell, 1823), 21.
16. The War Department registered 2,000 Kickapoos in Missouri; Stephen Aron, American Confluence: The Missouri Frontier from Borderland to Border State (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 2006), 204.
17. Nielsen, The Kickapoo People, 10–11.
18. Herring, Kenekuk, 1–11, 40–42.
19. Edmunds, “A History of the Kickapoo Indians in Illinois,” 50. On Lewis and Clark’s encounters with Kickapoos in Missouri, see Meriwether Lewis, History of the Expedition under the Command of Captains Lewis and Clarke, vol. 1 (New York: Allerton Book Co., 1922).
20. “Kickapoo Braves,” Atchison Daily Globe (Atchison, Kansas), July 11, 1887.
21. Louise Green Hoad, Kickapoo Indian Trails (Caldwell, ID: Caxton Printers, 1946), 86.
22. On visits between the Potawatomi and Kickapoos, see “An Indian Pow-wow,” Inter Ocean (Chicago), Aug. 30, 1874.
23. An Affecting Narrative of the Captivity and Sufferings of Mrs. Mary Smith (Williamsburgh: Ephraim Whitman, 1818), 7.
24. An Affecting Narrative of the Captivity and Sufferings of Mrs. Mary Smith, 3.
25. On Fort Towson, see Alexander Cummings to the Adjutant General, Fort Towson, Jan. 18, 1826, 184–85; on Texas, see Benjamin W. Edwards to George Gray, Natchitoches, May 28, 1827, 482–83; on Arkansas, see Peter B. Porter to Governor George Izard, June 11, 1828, 697, all in The Territorial Papers of the United States, vol. 20, The Territory of Arkansas, 1825–1829, ed. Clarence Edward Carter (Washington, DC: Government Printing Office, 1954).
26. Joshua A. Piker, “‘White & Clean’ and Contested: Creek Towns and Trading Paths in the Aftermath of the Seven Years’ War,” in American Encounters: Natives and Newcomers from European Contact to Indian Removal, 1500–1850, ed. Peter C. Mancall and James H. Merrell, 2nd ed. (New York: Routledge, 2007), 337–60.
27. William Biggs, Narrative of the Captivity of William Biggs among the Kickapoo Indians in Illinois in 1788, reprint, 1922, Heartman’s Historical Series no. 37, Princeton University Firestone Library, Rare Books Collection.
28. Hiram A. Hunter, A Narrative of the Captivity and Sufferings of Isaac Knight from Indian Barbarity (Evansville: Printed at the Journal Office, 1839), 11.
29. On horses, Nielsen, The Kickapoo People; Paul H. Voorhis, Kickapoo Vocabulary (Winnipeg: Algonquian and Iroquoian Linguistics, 1988), 4, 109.
30. George Croghan, “Croghan’s Journal, 1765,” in Early Western Travels, 1748–1846, ed. Reuben Gold Thwaites, vol. 1 (Cleveland: The Arthur H. Clark Co., 1904), 126–73.
31. Hunter, A Narrative of the Captivity and Sufferings of Isaac Knight, 9–10. See also Biggs, Narrative of the Captivity of William Biggs, 8, 12, 15, 18, 21, 24.
32. An Affecting Narrative of the Captivity and Sufferings of Mrs. Mary Smith, 7–9.
33. Henry Trumbull, History of the Discovery of America, of the Landing of Our Forefathers, at Plymouth, and of Their Most Remarkable Engagements with the Indians, in New-England . . . To Which Is Annexed, the Defeat of Generals Braddock, Harmer & St. Clair, by the Indians at the Westward (Norwich: James Springer, 1812), 133.
34. Trumbull, History of the Discovery of America, 135; Mark J. Wagner, The Rhoads Site: A Historic Kickapoo Village on the Illinois Prairie (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 2011), 24.
35. Trumbull, History of the Discovery of America, 140, 144–45.
36. “San Antonio,” Galveston Daily News, July 23, 1878.
37. “Indian Credulity,” North American and United States Gazette (Philadelphia), April 29, 1853.
38. “Will Migrate to Mexico,” Dallas Morning News, May 12, 1904.
39. “Train Kills Indian,” Dallas Morning News, Dec. 8, 1904. See also “Aged Kickapoo Killed by Train,” Dallas Morning News, Jan. 16, 1914.
40. On feats of horsemanship, see Nicholas Haby, �
��Early Texas Pioneers,” Dallas Morning News, Dec. 29, 1897.
41. James Joseph Buss, Winning the West with Words: Language and Conquest in the Lower Great Lakes (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 2011), 171.
42. Milton W. Mathews and Lewis A. McLean, Early History and Pioneers of Champaign County (Urbana: Champaign Country Herald), 112, 149.
43. Mathews and McLean, Early History and Pioneers of Champaign County, 4.
44. On turkeys, see Judge Ristine quoted in “From Fountain County, Indiana,” Inter Ocean (Chicago), Nov. 28, 1874; on roving, see Hunter, Manners and Customs of Several Indian Tribes Located West of the Mississippi, 22–23; on roaming and wandering at will, see Mathews and McLean, Early History and Pioneers of Champaign County, 149, 160.
45. Harris, “Along the Salt Fork River,” 471–75.
46. John Treat Irving, Jr., Indian Sketches Taken During an Expedition to the Pawnee and Other Tribes of American Indians, vol. 1 (London: John Murray, 1835), 71.
47. Henry Rowe Schoolcraft, The American Indians, Their History, Condition and Prospects (Buffalo: George H. Derby, 1851), 386.
48. “The Journal of Elijah Hicks,” The Chronicles of Oklahoma 13 (March 1935): 68–99.
49. Michael Adas, Dominance by Design: Technological Imperatives and America’s Civilizing Mission (Cambridge, MA: The Belknap Press, 2006), 48, 49, 61.
50. Joanne Barker, “For Whom Sovereignty Matters,” in Sovereignty Matters: Locations of Contestation and Possibility in Indigenous Struggles for Self-Determination, ed. Joanne Barker (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 2005), 1–32.
51. Isaac McCoy, Remarks on the Practicability of Indian Reform, Embracing Their Colonization (Boston: Lincoln & Edmands, 1827), 37.
52. Todd Depastino, Citizen Hobo: How a Century of Homelessness Shaped America (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2003), 5, 7, 26.
53. On “doomed to extinction,” see A. V. Pierson, “Indians,” in Folder: Pierson, A. V., “Livingston and McLean County Indians,” 1913, McLean County Historical Society, Bloomington, Illinois. “It Is Announced That on Thursday of This Week the Kickapoo Indian Reservation . . . ,” Atchison Daily Globe, May 21, 1895.
54. On Kickapoo Creek, see “Illinois,” United States’ Telegraph (Washington, DC), May 14, 1827; on Kickapoo Prairie, “Missouri and White River Railroad,” Arkansas State Democrat, May 4, 1849. On Kickapoo River, “Weather Crop Bulletin,” Milwaukee Sentinel, Sept. 27, 1893; on Kickapoo City, Kansas Herald of Freedom, Feb. 10, 1855; on Kickapoo Cave, “Kickapoo Cave,” Dallas Morning News, Feb. 28, 1920; on Kickapoo Hills, see “The Galenian . . . ,” Boston Courier, Dec. 24, 1832; on coal mines, see “Believed to be en Route for Europe,” Milwaukee Sentinel, Feb. 15, 1891; on Kickapoo Falls, Louisville Public Advertiser, June 11, 1823; on the Kickapoo road, “Gossip of the State,” Milwaukee Journal, Aug. 17, 1894; on eight states, see A. M. Gibson, The Kickapoos: Lords of the Middle Border (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1963), ix. On the fourteen states, see United States Board on Geographic Names (GNIS) database, geonames.usgs.gov, accessed Feb. 20, 2014.
55. Holly M. Barker, “Confronting a Trinity of Institutional Barriers: Denial, Cover-Up, and Secrecy,” Oceania 85 (Nov. 2015): 376–89.
56. Milo Custer to John Masquequa, Aug. 11, 1906, Folder 4, Kickapoo Correspondence; Milo Custer to John Mas-que-quah, June 26, 1906, Folder 5; both in Box 6: Kickapoo, McLean County Historical Society.
57. Milo Custer to E. M. Prince, Oct. 5, 1906, Folder 4: Kickapoo Correspondence, Box 6: Kickapoo, Milo Custer Collection, McLean County Historical Society.
58. “Heinrich Heine,” Milwaukee Sentinel, Feb. 12, 1888. On the Kickapoos’ presence in the eastern part of the Wisconsin Territory, see Samuel R. Brown, The Western Gazetteer; or Emigrant’s Directory (Auburn, NY: H.C. Southwick, 1817), 265.
59. On T. B. Nolen’s cure, see “From the Jaws of Death!,” Bismarck Daily Tribune, May 17, 1897.
60. “Texas Quidnunc in Gotham,” Galveston Daily News, Dec. 14, 1886. On kidney diseases and sagwa, see “From the Jaws of Death!,” Bismarck Daily Tribune, May 17, 1897. On Hawai’ian show, see “Notes from Kau,” Hawaiian Gazette, April 28, 1899. (Note: References in the present text to the state of Hawaii use the official spelling; references to the kingdom and the territory use the traditional spelling, Hawai‘i.) On rescue, see “Woman’s Hope,” Bismarck Daily Tribune, April 23, 1897. This ad includes an endorsement by T. B. Nolen, of Urbana, Champaign Co., IL. On printed materials and hunting, see Everett W. Doane, Life and Scenes Among the Kickapoo Indians (New Haven: Messrs. Healy and Bigelow, nd), 78, 141.
61. On elopement, see “Fell in Love with an Indian,” Milwaukee Sentinel, July 27, 1889; on lodge, see “Traveling Men’s Union,” Galveston News, May 23, 1884.
62. “Kickapoo Joy Juice,” Bevnet website, http://www.bevnet.com/reviews/Kickapoo, accessed Oct. 16, 2006.
63. See Charles Augustus Murray, Travels in North America during the Years 1834, 1835, and 1836, vol. 2 (London: Samuel Bentley, 1839), 82; on a missionary, “Father De Smet,” The Yankton Press (Yankton, South Dakota), June 4, 1873; “The Germans in Texas,” Daily Evening Bulletin (San Francisco), May 17, 1869; Elvid Hunt, History of Fort Leavenworth, 1827–1927 (Fort Leavenworth, KS: The General Service Schools Press, 1926), 45.
64. F. G. Adams to W. P. Dole, July 18, 1865, Letters Received by the Office of Indian Affairs, 1824–81, Kickapoo Agency, 1855–1876, Roll 372, 1864–1866 (Washington, DC: National Archives, 1958).
65. Mathews and McLean, Early History and Pioneers of Champaign County, on New Hampshire, 129; Massachusetts, 46; Maryland, 86; New Jersey, 18; New York, 25; Pennsylvania, 21; Indiana and Ohio, 19; Michigan, 46; North Carolina, 41; Virginia and Kentucky, 23; Tennessee, 74; Ontario, 46; England, 16; Scotland, 21; Ireland, 93; Switzerland, 156; Hannover and Bavaria, 40; Württemberg, 155. Biographical Record of Champaign County, Illinois (Chicago: The S. J. Clarke Publishing Co., 1900), on Scotch, 350, 103.
66. Mathews and McLean, Early History and Pioneers of Champaign County; on slave traders, 78; military recruits, 79; drover, 26; salesman, 25; seamen, 146; Stevenson, 14. Erna Moehl, A Century of God’s Presence: A Centennial Tribute, Immanuel Lutheran Church, Flatville, Illinois (Flatville, IL: The Immanuel Lutheran Church, 1974), 7. History of Champaign County, Illinois (Philadelphia: Brink, McDonough and Co., 1878), on Sadorus, 122; Shanly, 123; Roberts, 136; Rogerson, 172.
67. Mathews and McLean, Early History and Pioneers of Champaign County, 7.
68. Mathews and McLean, Early History and Pioneers of Champaign County; on Chicago, 27, 29; New Orleans, 24, 98; driving, 31; packing, 24; California, 17, 21, 106, 130, 150, 151; conductor, 34; Arkansas, 84; Pike’s Peak, 146; education, 36, 100; livestock, 93, 105; “look around,” 152. History of Champaign County, Illinois; on exhibiting, 73; Nicaragua, 142.
69. Allan G. Bogue, From Prairie to Corn Belt: Farming on the Illinois and Iowa Prairies in the Nineteenth Century, 1963 (Ames: Iowa State University Press, 1994), 40.
70. Mathews and McLean, Early History and Pioneers of Champaign County; on Blackhawk War, 65; Mormon War, 35; Mexican War, 69. On the Civil War, see, for example, 11, 16, 33, 71, 74, 75; on Kansas, 152; Andersonville, 73; family visits, 22, 98, 105; Sadorus, 162–63; Florida, 26; Europe, 36, 130; wedding, 12.
71. Mathews and McLean, Early History and Pioneers of Champaign County, 21, 66, 115.
72. Mathews and McLean, Early History and Pioneers of Champaign County, on Michigan, 42; Minnesota, 153; North Dakota, 68; Montana, 153; Nebraska, 27; Missouri, 59; Kansas, 36; Texas, 136; British Columbia, 85; Mexico, 34; Las Vegas, 14; San Diego, 44; Leadville, 151.
73. “The People’s Domain,” Prairie Farmer (Chicago), Feb. 4, 1871.
74. “Alberta,” Urbana Daily Courier, July 15, 1913.
75. “Markets,” Prairie Farmer, Dec. 20, 1890, 813.
76. On the Kingdom of Württemberg, see Mathe
ws and McLean, Early History and Pioneers of Champaign County, 155.
77. Portrait and Biographical Album of Champaign County, Ill. (Chicago: Chapman Brothers, 1887), 961; Ireland, 235; Sweden, 252; Prussia, 271; England, 283; Alsace, 309, 336; Mecklenburg, 383.
78. The Biographical Record of Champaign County, 85, 130.
79. On remittances, Mathews and McLean, Early History and Pioneers of Champaign County, 94. J. R. Stewart, ed., A Standard History of Champaign County, Illinois, vol. 2 (Chicago: The Lewis Publishing Co., 1918), 684, 720, 863.
80. Felipe A. Latorre and Dolores L. Latorre, The Mexican Kickapoo Indians (Austin: University of Texas Press, 1976), 37.
81. Ritzenthaler and Peterson, The Mexican Kickapoo Indians, 81–88.
82. On homes as places where a fire is kept, see Voorhis, Kickapoo Vocabulary, 58.
83. Testimony of Ekoneskaka (Aurelio Valdez Garcia) as reported by Jim Salvator, in “An Oral History,” Parnassus: Poetry in Review 17, no. 1 (1992): 170–83.
84. J. Joseph Bauxar, “History of the Illinois Area,” Northeast, vol. 15 of Handbook of North American Indians, ed. Bruce G. Trigger (Washington, DC: Smithsonian Institution, 1978), 594–601. For the treaty language, see Edmunds, “A History of the Kickapoo Indians in Illinois,” 65; for a discussion of “making property” through labor among the Creeks, see David A. Chang, The Color of the Land: Race, Nation, and the Politics of Landownership in Oklahoma, 1832–1929 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2010), 31.
85. Wayne C. Temple, “Indian Villages of the Illinois Country,” Illinois State Museum, Scientific Papers, vol. 2, part 2, Springfield, Illinois, 1958, 163. On wartime alliances, see Donald D. Stull, Kiikaapoa: The Kansas Kickapoo (Horton, KS: Kickapoo Tribal Press, 1984), 30.
86. Edmunds, “A History of the Kickapoo Indians in Illinois,” 57.
87. Paul David Nelson, “General Charles Scott, the Kentucky Mounted Volunteers, and the Northwest Indian Wars, 1784–1794,” Journal of the Early Republic 6 (Fall 1986): 219–51; Edmunds, “A History of the Kickapoo Indians in Illinois,” 59.
The Heartland Page 32