51. “Western Cattle at the United States Fair, Chicago,” Prairie Farmer, Jan. 5, 1860, 2.
52. “A Serious Outbreak,” Canadian Farm, Nov. 13, 1914, 1.
53. “Short-Horns and Swine for Illinois,” Prairie Farmer, April 23, 1870, 124; “The Canada Sales,” Prairie Farmer, Jan. 24, 1876, 205. On Canadian ancestry, “Items about Ford County, Ill.,” Prairie Farmer, June 4, 1870, 172; “Vermilion County,” Prairie Farmer, Oct. 15, 1870, 322.
54. On economic integration in the Great Lakes region, see Stuart, Dispersed Relations, 5, 10, 143, 288; “Canada and the Illinois,” The Journal of Agriculture, 1836, 628.
55. James Caird, Letter on the Lands of the Illinois Central Railway Company (London: np, 1859); Caird’s Slanders on Canada Answered and Refuted! (Toronto: Lovell and Gibson, 1859), 4, 7, 19.
56. “International Railroad Excursion,” Prairie Farmer, July 26, 1860, 56; “Our Canadian Visitors,” Illinois Farmer, Aug. 1860, 128–29.
57. C. D. B., “The Canadian Excursion,” Prairie Farmer, Aug. 2, 1860, 65. On Sullivant’s farm, see “An Illinois Farm,” The Canadian Agriculturalist 9 (Nov. 1857): 301.
58. “Our Canadian Visitors,” Illinois Farmer, Aug. 1860, 128–29.
59. Paul Wallace Gates, The Illinois Central Railroad and Its Colonization Work (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1934), 234. On Canadian migration to the Mississippi Valley in the 1840s, see Marcus Lee Hansen, The Mingling of the Canadian and American Peoples, vol. 1, compiled and prepared for publication by John Bartlet Brebner (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1940), 90, 115, 128; John J. Bukowczyk, “Migration, Transportation, Capital, and the State in the Great Lakes Basin, 1815–1890” (29–77), and Nora Faires, “Leaving the ‘Land of the Second Chance’: Migration from Ontario to the Upper Midwest in the Nineteenth and Early Twentieth Centuries” (78–119), both in Permeable Border.
60. On adult immigrants, see Champaign County, Illinois Naturalization Record, vol. B, 1878–1902, np; on immigrant minors, see A Naturalization Record (Minors) (Chicago: Culver, Page and Hoyne, nd); both in the Urbana Free Library Archives.
61. Frances E. Roehm, “Champaign County, Illinois 1850, A Historical Overview,” 1986; 1860 U.S. Federal Census of Champaign County, Illinois (Urbana: Champaign County Genealogical Society, 1988), both held in the Urbana Free Library Archives; federal census records in AncestryLibrary.com.
62. On the Tuckers, see 1860 U.S. Federal Census of Champaign County, 86. Census records list 869 residents born in the British Isles in 1860 and 1,891 in 1870.
63. History of Champaign County, Illinois, 105, 139, 172. On Richards, O’Brien, McIntyre, and Crawford, The Biographical Record of Champaign County, Illinois, 86, 160, 410, 532. On Lock, “A Day in the Country,” Illinois Farmer, June 1863, 182–83.
64. Annual Report of the Illinois Farmers’ Institute (Springfield: Phillips Brothers, 1901), 155–56; “New Professors at the University of Illinois,” Farmer and Breeder for the Farm Home, vol. 11, Aug. 1899, 1.
65. 1860 U.S. Federal Census of Champaign County, 182.
66. J. S. Lothrop, J. S. Lothrop’s Champaign County Directory, 1870–71 (Chicago: Rand, McNally and Co., 1871), 118.
67. Mathews and McLean, Early History and Pioneers of Champaign County, 129.
68. On Vancouver, Mathews and McLean, Early History and Pioneers of Champaign County, 85; on Toronto, “Urbana Locals,” Champaign Daily Gazette, Dec. 9, 1889; on railroad, Gretchen S. Rauschenberg, Chicago’s ‘Mr. Rural’: The Life of Matthias Lane Dunlap (Baltimore: Gateway Press, 2007), 101.
69. David D. Harvey, Americans in Canada: Migration and Settlement since 1840 (Lewiston, NY: The Edwin Mellen Press, 1991), iv–v, 246. “Big Four,” Champaign Daily Gazette, Dec. 8, 1899.
70. “The American Rush into Canada,” The Economist, Aug. 17, 1912, 312–13. Karel Denis Bicha, The American Farmer and the Canadian West, 1896–1914 (Lawrence, KS: Coronado Press, 1968), 63, 96. Bicha notes that many emigrants returned to the United States, 138. He estimates 600,000 emigrants for this period, 117.
71. “Freed Lee Rice Goes to Canada,” Champaign Daily Gazette, July 13, 1900.
72. “The American Rush into Canada,” 312; “Canadian Annexation,” Bradstreet’s, May 12, 1883, 291.
73. The Statistical Year-Book of Canada for 1900 (Ottawa: Government Printing Bureau, 1901), 404.
74. “News of the Week,” Prairie Farmer, Jan. 24, 1876, 206. On importations via Canada, see Annual Report of the Secretary of the Treasury on the State of the Finances for the Year 1882 (Washington, DC: Government Printing Office, 1882), xxxvii.
75. Henry Tyler, “The Grand Trunk’s Relations with American Roads,” Railroad Gazette, Nov. 12, 1880, 596. On the line to Chicago, see Mary Yeager, Competition and Regulation: The Development of Oligopoly in the Meat Packing Industry (Greenwich, CT: Jai Press, 1981), 90.
76. G. R. Stevens, Canadian National Railways, vol. 1, Sixty Years of Trial and Error (1836–1896) (Toronto: Clarke, Irwin and Co., 1960), 339, 363.
77. “The Market Systems of the Country,” Report of the Commissioner of Agriculture for the Year 1870 (Washington, DC: Government Printing Office, 1871), 241–54.
78. Plimsoll, Cattle Ships, 40–41, 48–58.
79. Plimsoll, Cattle Ships, 42, 56.
80. On pleuropneumonia, see “Canadian Regulations Concerning the Importation and Transit of Live Stock,” Railroad Gazette, May 7, 1880, 249; on the Grand Trunk, see Whitaker, Feedlot Empire, 48.
81. “Canadian Regulations Concerning the Importation and Transit of Live Stock,” Railroad Gazette, May 7, 1880, 249.
82. Stevens, Canadian National Railways, 363; William Cronon, Nature’s Metropolis: Chicago and the Great West (New York: W. W. Norton, 1991), 239; on 59 percent, see Warren, Tied to the Great Packing Machine, 13. Canadian harvesters exported ice to U.S. meat shippers; “Markets,” Prairie Farmer, March 8, 1890, 157.
83. Whitaker, Feedlot Empire, 48; “The Grand Trunk Railway,” Bradstreet’s, Dec. 5, 1885, 355; Yeager, Competition, 92, 102–04.
84. “On to the Seaboard,” Prairie Farmer, Nov. 21, 1874, 369. See also “Extortionate Stock Yards,” Prairie Farmer, Feb. 24, 1877, 60.
85. “The Farmer’s Favorite,” Prairie Farmer, Dec. 15, 1877, 396. “Publishers’ Notices,” Prairie Farmer, Sept. 23, 1871, 300.
86. “Foreign,” Prairie Farmer, Jan. 5, 1860, 9; “To Measure Hay and Wheat,” Prairie Farmer, July 16, 1864, 34.
87. “Agricultural Items,” Prairie Farmer, Jan. 20, 1872, 18.
88. L. H. Bailey, ed., Cyclopedia of American Agriculture, vol. 1, 4th ed. (New York: The Macmillan Co., 1912), 1–6.
89. “Short-Horn History,” The Breeder’s Gazette, Dec. 1, 1881, 4–5.
90. Donald F. Warner, “The Farmers’ Alliance and the Farmers’ Union: An American-Canadian Parallelism,” Agricultural History 23 (Jan. 1949): 9–19.
91. “Notes from the Granges,” Prairie Farmer, July 1, 1876, 211.
92. “Keeping Up an Interest in the Grange,” Prairie Farmer, April 28, 1877, 131.
93. “Convention of Short-Horn Breeders of the United States and Canada,” Prairie Farmer, July 20, 1872, 229.
94. “To the Breeders of Short-Horns in the United States and Canada,” Prairie Farmer, Feb. 20, 1875, 61. On Canadian attendance, see “National Short-Horn Cattle Breeders’ Association,” Prairie Farmer, Dec. 20, 1873, 405.
95. “The Short-Horn Breeders,” Prairie Farmer, Dec. 11, 1875, 397.
96. Derry, Bred for Perfection, 36–42.
97. “The Short-Horn Herd Book,” The Breeder’s Gazette, Dec. 29, 1881, 99.
98. “Convention of Short-Horn Breeders,” 229.
99. “The Short-Horn Breeders,” Prairie Farmer, Dec. 11, 1875, 397.
100. “Discovery of Illinois,” Prairie Farmer, Aug. 19, 1858, 119.
101. “The Canadian
Excursion,” Prairie Farmer, Aug. 16, 1860, 97.
102. Colonel Blair, “Remarks,” Annual Report of the Illinois Farmers’ Institute (Springfield: Phillips Bros., State Printers, 1901), 155–56.
103. “Stock Bred . . . ,” Prairie Farmer, March 2, 1872, 69. On family feelings, see Edward P. Kohn, This Kindred People: Canadian-American Relations and the Anglo-Saxon Idea, 1895–1903 (Montreal: McGill-Queen’s University Press, 2004), 4.
104. James J. Hill, Highways of Progress (New York: Doubleday, Page, and Co., 1912), 86; “Our Relations with Canada,” Bradstreet’s, March 3, 1880, 4.
105. G. Mercer Adam, ed., Handbook of Commercial Union (Toronto: Hunter, Rose & Company, 1888), xiv, 55.
106. Alexander Monro, The United States and the Dominion of Canada: Their Future (Saint John, NB: Barnes and Co., 1879), vi.
107. Hill, Highways of Progress, 86.
108. Stuart, United States Expansionism, 193, 218, 237.
109. William Renick, Memoirs, Correspondence and Reminiscences (Circleville, OH: Union-Herald Book and Job Printing House, 1880), 24–25.
110. On service in Texas, see, for example, History of Champaign County, Illinois, 141. Dale, The Range Cattle Industry, 33–34.
111. John Gamgee, “Report of Professor Gamgee on the Splenic or Periodic Fever of Cattle,” Report of the Commissioner of Agriculture on the Diseases of Cattle in the United States (Washington, DC: Government Printing Office, 1871), 82–132.
112. J. R. Dodge, “Report of Statistical and Historical Investigations of the Progress and Results of the Texas Cattle Disease,” Report of the Commissioner of Agriculture on the Diseases of Cattle in the United States (Washington, DC: Government Printing Office, 1871), 175–202.
113. On Highthorn, see “Stock Sales and Purchases,” Prairie Farmer, Feb. 25, 1871, 60; on Duke, see “Items Gathered at Springfield,” Prairie Farmer, July 1, 1871, 201.
114. “Chicago Live Stock Market,” Prairie Farmer, June 1, 1872, 176. On Chicago pricing, see James MacDonald, Food from the Far West (London: William P. Nimmo, 1878), 183; Jimmy M. Skaggs, Prime Cut: Livestock Raising and Meatpacking in the United States, 1607–1983 (College Station: Texas A&M Press, 1986), 72; on Texas pricing, see Joseph Nimmo, Jr., Report in Regard to the Range and Ranch Cattle Business of the United States (1885; reprint, New York: Arno Press, 1972), 4.
115. L. F. Allen, “The Short-Horn Breed of Cattle,” Report of the Commissioner of Agriculture for the Year 1875 (Washington, DC: Government Printing Office, 1876), 416–26. On the suitability of Texan cattle for stocking ranches in western states like Colorado and Montana, see Joshua Specht, “The Rise, Fall, and Rebirth of the Texas Longhorn: An Evolutionary History” Environmental History 21 (April 2016): 348–63.
116. Allen, “The Short-Horn Breed of Cattle,” 417. On degeneracy, see United States Consular Reports: Cattle and Dairy Farming, Part I (Washington, DC: Government Printing Office, 1888), 51.
117. On domestication and color, see Wm. Le Baron, “Natural History of the Domesticated Animals,” Prairie Farmer, Dec. 26, 1868, 201; on Moorish ancestry, see Dale, The Range Cattle Industry, 3.
118. MacDonald, Food from the Far West, 269.
119. On human crossings of the U.S.-Mexico border, see Ettinger, Imaginary Lines, 38; on U.S. duties and Mexican taxes as high as $2.50 a head (instituted in the 1880s), United States Consular Reports: Cattle and Dairy Farming, Part II, 580; on Mexican duties, “Foreign and Colonial,” Mark Lane Express, Nov. 11, 1889, 658.
120. George A. Wallis, Cattle Kings of the Staked Plains (Dallas: American Guild Press, 1957), 119–20.
121. United States Consular Reports: Cattle and Dairy Farming, Part II, 585–86.
122. Alan L. Olmstead and Paul W. Rhode, Creating Abundance: Biological Innovation and American Agricultural Development (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2008), 292; Harriet Ritvo, The Animal Estate: The English and Other Creatures of the Victorian Age (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1987), 55, 60, 74–76. On projecting identities onto animals, see Ann Norton Greene, Horses at Work: Harnessing Power in Industrial America (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 2008), 12.
123. C. L. Sonnichsen, Colonel Greene and the Copper Skyrocket (Tucson: University of Arizona Press, 1974), 23–26, on markets, 238; Rachel St. John, “Divided Ranges: Trans-border Ranches and the Creation of National Space along the Western Mexico-U.S. Border,” in Bridging National Borders in North America, ed. Johnson and Graybill, 116–40. On hacendados, see Juan Mora-Torres, The Making of the Mexican Border (Austin: University of Texas Press, 2001), 115. Mora-Torres notes that Nuevo León was a net importer of Texan cattle prior to 1872, 63. Mark Wasserman, Capitalists, Caciques, and Revolution: The Native Elite and Foreign Enterprise in Chihuahua, Mexico, 1854–1911 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1984), 48, 75, 82.
124. Julius Morton to T. M. Paschal, June 20, 1895, Letterbook v. 353 (June 1, 1895, to Nov. 6, 1895), Record Group 16, Animal Industry, National Archives, College Park.
125. Mora-Torres, The Making of the Mexican Border, 129; Arnoldo De León, The Tejano Community, 1836–1900 (Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 1982), 17.
126. Foreign Commerce and Navigation of the United States (Washington, DC: Government Printing Office, 1896), 954. These districts were: Brazos de Santiago, Corpus Christi, Galveston, Paseo del Norte, and Saluria. On number of employees, see Annual Report of the Secretary of the Treasury on the State of the Finances for the Year 1883 (Washington, DC: Government Printing Office, 1883), 72–101.
127. Annual Report of the Secretary of the Treasury on the State of the Finances (Washington, DC: Government Printing Office, 1901), 32.
128. Datos Mercantiles (México: Oficina Tip. de la Secretaría de Fomento, Colonización, é Industria, 1892), 3–4.
129. M. Romero, “The Free Zone in Mexico,” North American Review 154 (April 1892): 459–71; American Commerce: Commerce of South America, Central America, Mexico, and West Indies (Washington, DC: Government Printing Office, 1899), 3182–84; “Topics of the Day,” Prairie Farmer, Jan. 3, 1874, 4.
130. American Commerce: Commerce of South America, Central America, Mexico, and West Indies, 3371–72. Of these, 1,786,261 were entered as duty-free; 928,175 as dutiable. As in the Canadian case, there are discrepancies between U.S. import and Mexican export figures, again apparently undercounting exports; Comercio Exterior, Año Fiscal de 1897–1898 (Mexico: Oficina Impresora del Timbre, 1901), 204.
131. United States Consular Reports: Cattle and Dairy Farming, Part II, 580, 582, 588.
132. “Mexican Cattle Imports,” The National Provisioner, Nov. 30, 1895, 15; “Mexican Cattle,” The National Provisioner, April 16, 1898, 22.
133. D. E. Salmon, Mexico as a Market for Purebred Beef Cattle from the United States (Washington, DC: Government Printing Office, 1902), 6.
134. “Cattle Transportation,” Railroad Gazette, Feb. 13, 1875.
135. E. E. Chester, “Cattle in Central Illinois,” Annual Report of the Illinois Farmers’ Institute (Springfield, Illinois, 1898), 261–64.
136. James E. Poole, “Future Meat Supply of North America,” The National Provisioner, Sept. 27, 1913, 99. The byline identifies him as a Chicago Live Stock World reporter.
137. “Memorandum Regarding Importation of Ticky Cattle from Mexico into Texas,” Feb. 14, 1914, Folder: Animals–Cattle; Box 115: Alcohol-Animals-Cattle, 1914; RG 16, General Correspondence of the Office of the Secretary, Records of the Office of the Secretary of Agriculture, National Archives, College Park.
138. “Cattle Stealing on the Mexican Border,” Prairie Farmer, Oct. 26, 1872, 341. On transborder production on the far western stretch of the U.S.-Mexico border, see St. John, “Divided Ranges,” 116–40.
139. “News of the Week,” Prairie Farmer, Nov. 30, 1872, 384.
140. “A New Cause of Trouble with Mexico,” Daily Evening Bulletin (San
Francisco), Aug. 23, 1871.
141. “News of the Week,” Prairie Farmer, July 14, 1877, 224. On recognizing that stealing went both ways, see “Topics of the Day,” Prairie Farmer, May 31, 1873, 172; “News of the Week,” Prairie Farmer, Jan. 13, 1874, 192. Reports of the Committee of Investigation Sent in 1873 by the Mexican Government to the Frontier of Texas (New York: Baker and Godwin, 1875), iii, 55, 65.
142. McManus, The Line Which Separates, 80; David H. Breen, The Canadian Prairie West and the Ranching Frontier, 1874–1924 (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1983), 85; Joseph Nimmo, Jr., “The American Cow-Boy,” Harper’s New Monthly Magazine 73 (Nov. 1886): 880–84. On complaints that Canadian Indians killed U.S. cattle, see Hana Samek, The Blackfoot Confederacy 1880–1920: A Comparative Study of Canadian and U.S. Indian Policy (Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 1987), 154.
143. “The Mexican Question,” Prairie Farmer, Dec. 15, 1877, 396.
144. Marian C. McKenna, “Above the Blue Line: Policing the Frontier in the Canadian and American West, 1870–1900,” in The Borderlands of the American and Canadian Wests: Essays on Regional History of the Forty-ninth Parallel, ed. Sterling Evans (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 2006), 81–106; “Cattle Stealing on the Mexican Border,” Prairie Farmer, Oct. 26, 1872, 341.
145. Pedro Saucedo Montemayor, Historia de la Ganadería en México, vol. 1 (Mexico City: Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, 1984), 44–53. Mathews and McLean, Early History and Pioneers of Champaign County, 34, 69. On last heard, The Biographical Record of Champaign County, Illinois, 152. On Mexican war veterans, see “Decoration Day,” Prairie Farmer, May 29, 1875, 172; History of Champaign County, Illinois, 36, 138; on Acapulco, 143.
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