The Heartland
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72. Allen, “On the Origin, Breeding, and Management of Berkshire Swine,” 208–11.
73. Year Book American Berkshire Association, 1894, 7.
74. Shaw, “The Berkshire Hog,” 30.
75. Shaw, “The Berkshire Hog,” 30–31.
76. British Berkshire Society, British Berkshire Herd Book, vol. 1, viii.
77. Wing, “Fighting the Battle for Live Stock Improvement,” 1210.
78. D. W. May, Annual Report of the Porto Rico Agricultural Experiment Station for 1911 (Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Agriulture, 1912), 12.
79. “Swine,” National Stockman and Farmer, Nov. 1, 1913, 780.
80. Alan L. Olmstead and Paul W. Rhode, Creating Abundance: Biological Innovation and American Agricultural Development (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2008), 307–08; on the Berkshire ancestry of Duroc-Jerseys, see Curtis, Horses, Cattle, Sheep and Swine, 301; on the Berkshire ancestry of the Poland China breed, “Raising and Packing Hogs,” The National Provisioner 15 (July 11, 1896): 15.
81. John G. Clark, The Grain Trade in the Old Northwest, 1966 (Westport: Greenwood Press, 1980), 181, 233–34.
82. “American Bacon and Pork,” The Illustrated Household Journal and Englishwoman’s Domestic Magazine, May 22, 1880, 326.
83. First Report from the Select Committee of the House of Lords Appointed to Inquire into the Policy and Operation of The Navigation Laws; And to Report Thereon to the House; Together with Minutes of Evidence (London: 1848), 85, Parliamentary Papers Online.
84. Preliminary Report from Her Majesty’s Commissioners on Agriculture (London: 1881), 817, Parliamentary Papers Online.
85. Report from the Select Committee on Preserved Meats (Navy), Together with the Minutes of Evidence (London: 1852), 74, Parliamentary Papers Online.
86. On fine quality, see “Working on the New Tariff,” John Bull, Nov. 19, 1842, 556.
87. On rattlesnakes, see “Royal Visit to Strathfieldsaye,” Bell’s Life in London and Sporting Chronicle, Dec. 29, 1844. On cow manure, Report from the Select Committee on Merchandise Marks; Together with the Proceedings of the Committee, Minutes of Evidence, Appendix and Index (London: 1897), 7, Parliamentary Papers Online.
88. Rankin, “Points on Pork,” 68.
89. Fred H. Rankin, “Our Swine Interests,” Annual Report of the Illinois Farmers’ Institute (Springfield: 1898), 84–88.
90. Year Book American Berkshire Association, 1894, 6.
91. Phil Thrifton, “A Berkshire Claimant,” Prairie Farmer, Dec. 26, 1885, 840.
92. Allen, “On the Origin, Breeding, and Management of Berkshire Swine,” 220. On purebred animals as markers of distinction, see Ritvo, The Animal Estate, 61, 81.
93. Kelly J. Sisson Lessens, “Master of Millions: King Corn in American Culture” (PhD diss., University of Michigan, 2011), 7.
94. On leaner meat, Preliminary Report from Her Majesty’s Commissioners on Agriculture, 817. On better breeding and market opportunities, see Allen, “On the Origin, Breeding, and Management of Berkshire Swine,” 220.
95. James E. Davis, Frontier Illinois (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1998), 180.
96. Milton W. Mathews and Lewis A. McLean, Early History and Pioneers of Champaign County (Urbana: Champaign County Herald, 1886), 24, 31; on driving and plants, see Bogue, From Prairie to Corn Belt, 111.
97. W. J. Edwards, “Roads and Road Making in Illinois,” Transactions of the Department of Agriculture of the State of Illinois (1874) (Springfield: State Journal Steam Print, 1875), 140–63.
98. Documents Relating to the Organization of the Illinois Central Rail-Road Company, 2nd ed. (New York: Geo. Scott Roe, 1852), 5, 8; C. H. Markham, The Development, Strategy, and Traffic of the Illinois Central System, reprint from Economic Geography 2 (Jan. 1926), 1; “Rail Road Meeting,” Urbana Union, June 22, 1854.
99. Lance E. Davis and Robert J. Cull, International Capital Markets and American Economic Growth, 1820–1914 (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1994), 111.
100. Howard Gray Brownson, “History of the Illinois Central Railroad to 1870” (Ph.D. diss., University of Illinois, 1909), 121–22.
101. Paul Wallace Gates, The Illinois Central Railroad and Its Colonization Work (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1934), 89.
102. Brownson, “History of the Illinois Central Railroad to 1870,” 123–29. On the $5 million, see Illinois Central Railroad Company, Report to the Shareholders, 1858, Documents and Pamphlets Relating to American Railroads in the Late Nineteenth Century, University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign (hereafter UIUC) Rare Books and Manuscript Library, 1.
103. Illinois Central Railroad Company, Report to the Shareholders, 1857, Documents and Pamphlets Relating to American Railroads in the Late Nineteenth Century, UIUC Rare Books and Manuscript Library, 1, 9; Brownson, “History of the Illinois Central Railroad to 1870,” 137.
104. Illinois Central Railroad Company, Report to the Shareholders, 1858, 1–2. Brownson, “History of the Illinois Central Railroad to 1870,” 137.
105. Gates, The Illinois Central Railroad and Its Colonization Work, 80; on the books, Illinois Central Railroad Company, Report to the Shareholders, 1858, 2.
106. The Ten Best States of America for Agriculture, Horticulture, and General Industries, Traversed by the Illinois Central Railroad (Cedar Rapids: Republican Printing Company, 1893), 14.
107. James Caird, Letter on the Lands of the Illinois Central Railway Company (London: Jan. 1859), 3–9; Gates, The Illinois Central Railroad and Its Colonization Work, 215.
108. Gates, The Illinois Central Railroad and Its Colonization Work, 218.
109. Homer E. Socolofsky, “William Scully: His Early Years in Illinois, 1850–1865,” Journal of the West 4 (Jan. 1965): 41–55. Although he had land in Illinois, Scully did not own any in what became Champaign County, 41–44; on protest, 52.
110. “The Scully Estate—Lords of 211,000 Acres,” Prairie Farmer, March 22, 1919, 8.
111. Caird, Letter on the Lands of the Illinois Central Railway Company, 3–9.
112. Gates, The Illinois Central Railroad and Its Colonization Work, 218.
113. Gates, The Illinois Central Railroad and Its Colonization Work, 89–90, 172.
114. Portrait and Biographical Album of Champaign County, Ill. (Chicago: Chapman Brothers, 1887), 546.
115. “Literary Society,” Urbana Union, June 1, 1854.
116. Census figures accessed via Ancestry.com, June 8, 2010. In 1850, 14 percent of immigrants to the United States as a whole came from England, Scotland and Wales; 45 percent from Ireland. By 1870, the former sent 27 percent of immigrants and Ireland only 15 percent. Kathleen Burk, Old World, New World: Great Britain and America from the Beginning (New York: Atlantic Monthly Press, 2007), 312.
117. Duncan Bell, The Idea of Greater Britain: Empire and the Future of World Order, 1860–1900 (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2007), 54.
118. A Guide to the Illinois Central Railroad Lands (Chicago: Illinois Central Railroad Office, 1859), 52.
119. Harry Fornari, Bread upon the Waters: A History of United States Grain Exports (Nashville: Aurora Publishers, 1973), 28–29.
120. “British Agriculture and Foreign Competition,” Blackwood’s Edinburgh Magazine, Jan. 1850, 94–136.
121. Christabel S. Orwin and Edith H. Whetham, History of British Agriculture 1846–1914 (London: Archon Books, 1964), 40, 261; on Canadian pigs’ diets, see C. G. Hopkins, “Breeding Corn for Improvement in Composition,” Illinois Agriculturist 6 (1902): 1–12.
122. Fornari, Bread upon the Waters, 32.
123. Russell Howard Anderson, “Agriculture in Illinois During the Civil War Period, 1850–1870: An Abstract of a Thesis” (PhD diss., abstract, University of Illinois, 1929), 3–4.
124. Documents Relating to the Organization of the Illinois Central Rail-Roa
d Company, 84.
125. Clipping: Democratic Press, “The Farm and Garden,” no. 83, Rural, West Urbana, April 2, 1857, Dunlap, volume 3, Letterbooks, Matthias L. Dunlap, Matthias L. Dunlap Papers, Box 1, UIUC Archives, Urbana, Illinois.
126. Richard Perren, The Meat Trade in Britain, 1840–1914 (London: Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1978), 71. Some pork went to Europe: starting in the 1840s, Cincinnati packers began to put up pork expressly for northern European markets; Rudolf Alexander Clemen, The American Livestock and Meat Industry (New York: The Ronald Press Company, 1923), 98.
127. Roger Horowitz, Putting Meat on the American Table: Taste, Technology, Transformation (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2006), 50.
128. “New Records for U.S. Pork Export Volume,” National Hog Farmer, Feb. 7, 2018.
129. Grand, Illustrated History of the Union Stockyards, 19, 22.
130. “The Export Commerce of To-Day,” Bradstreet’s, July 10, 1880, 4.
131. On Liverpool, see Perren, The Meat Trade in Britain, 171. On 8 percent and the Liverpool trade, see Alexander Maclure, “America as a Power,” The Nineteenth Century: A Monthly Review, June 1896, 809, 906–13.
132. Rankin, “Our Swine Interests,” 86.
133. Rankin, “Points on Pork,” 71.
134. Rankin, “Our Swine Interests,” 86.
135. Clark, The Grain Trade in the Old Northwest, 181, 233–34.
136. J. R. Dodge, “Report of the Statistician,” Report of the Commissioner of Agriculture, 1885 (Washington, DC: Government Printing Office, 1885), 344–430.
137. “Foreign Restrictions,” Prairie Farmer, Nov. 28, 1885, 774; Paul W. Gates, Agriculture and the Civil War (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1965), 184.
138. Rankin, “Our Swine Interests,” 85.
139. John L. Gignilliat, “Pigs, Politics, and Protection: The European Boycott of American Pork, 1879–1891,” Agricultural History 35 (Jan. 1961): 3–12.
140. Gignilliat, “Pigs, Politics, and Protection,” 3, 10–11.
141. Annual Report of the Veterinary Department of the Privy Council Office for the Year 1879, With an Appendix (London: 1880), 10, Parliamentary Papers Online.
142. “It is not without a touch of humour . . . ,” The Country Gentleman, April 23, 1881, 433. On 60 percent, see Gignilliat, “Pigs, Politics, and Protection,” 4.
143. Rankin, “Our Swine Interests,” 86.
144. The Foreign Commerce and Navigation of the United States for the Year Ending June 30, 1895, part 1, vol. 2 (Washington, DC: Government Printing Office, 1896), 966.
145. The company was run under the name Fowler Brothers Limited from 1869 to 1885; John F. Hobbs, “Our Great Meat Kingdom in the West,” The National Provisioner 23 (Dec. 22, 1900): 13.
146. Michael D’Antonio, A Full Cup: Sir Thomas Lipton’s Extraordinary Life and His Quest for the America’s Cup (New York: Riverhead Books, 2010), 38, 90–91, 124.
147. “William Simpson (Liverpool), Ltd.,” The National Provisioner 51 (Feb. 11, 1911): 49.
148. “Rural Topics and Events,” The Australasian, May 31, 1879.
149. Annual Report of the Veterinary Department of the Privy Council Office for the Year 1879, 10.
150. “The Inquiry Which the Local Government Board Has Ordered,” The Country Gentleman, July 10, 1880, 693.
151. “American Pork,” Bell’s Life in London and Sporting Chronicle, Nov. 6, 1842.
152. “The English Market, by Way of Canada,” Prairie Farmer, June 1843, 3, 6.
153. Orwin and Whetham, History of British Agriculture 1846–1914, 40, 261; on Canadian pigs’ diets, see C. G. Hopkins, “Breeding Corn for Improvement in Composition,” Illinois Agriculturist 6 (1902): 1–12.
154. Perren, The Meat Trade in Britain, 171.
155. Rankin, “Our Swine Interests,” 85.
156. The Echo, cited in “Rural Topics and Events,” The Australasian, May 31, 1879.
157. “American Bacon and Pork,” The Illustrated Household Journal and Englishwoman’s Domestic Magazine, May 22, 1880, 326.
158. Report from the Select Committee on Marking of Foreign Meat, &c. (London: 1893), x, Parliamentary Papers Online.
159. “Alleged Dishonesty in the Provision Trade,” The Manchester Guardian, Dec. 16, 1897.
160. W. T. Crandall, “Report,” Report of the Commissioner of Agriculture and Dairying for the Dominion of Canada, 1897 (Ottawa: S. E. Dawson, 1898), part 15, 6.
161. Report from the Select Committee on British Shipping (London: 1844), 100–01, Parliamentary Papers Online. Until the 1880s many houses relied on all-round butchers but thereafter they relied more on unskilled workers laboring in assembly-line conditions; James R Barrett, Work and Community in the Jungle: Chicago’s Packinghouse Workers, 1894–1922 (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1987), 25.
162. Perren, The Meat Trade in Britain, 71, 171.
163. Charles Randolph, Twentieth Annual Report of the Trade and Commerce of Chicago for the Year Ending December 31, 1877, Compiled for the Board of Trade (Chicago: Knight and Leonard Printers, 1878), lxxv-lxxvi.
164. “Spices,” The National Provisioner 15 (July 4, 1896): 41.
165. “Guide to the B. Heller & Co. Collection, 1896–2003,” University of Chicago Library, 2010.
166. “American Bacon and Pork,” The Illustrated Household Journal and Englishwoman’s Domestic Magazine, May 22, 1880, 326.
167. On packing methods and their changes over time, Perren, The Meat Trade in Britain, 71; Horowitz, Putting Meat on the American Table, 45. “American Bacon and Pork,” 326. Mark Kurlansky, Salt: A World History (New York: Walker and Company, 2002), 249, 318.
168. “Wholesale and Retail Provision Trade,” The Age, Oct. 30, 1842, 3.
169. W. H. Simmonds, The Practical Grocer, vol. 3 (London: The Gresham Publishing Company, 1906), 241.
170. Report of the Departmental Committee Appointed to Inquire into the Use of Preservatives and Colouring Matters in the Preservation and Colouring of Food (London, 1901), 1–2, 15, 203–05, Parliamentary Papers Online.
171. Report of the Departmental Committee Appointed to Inquire into the Use of Preservatives and Colouring Matters, 1–2, 15, 203–05. On color enhancement, see “Restriction of American Meats in Switzerland,” The National Provisioner 16 (Feb. 27, 1897): 29.
172. “Markets for American Products,” Bradstreet’s 23 (Sept. 7, 1895): 573.
173. W. H. Thomas, “A Missouri Farmer Argues,” Prairie Farmer, Dec. 6, 1890, 769, 777.
174. J. R. Dodge, “Report of the Statistician,” Report of the Commissioner of Agriculture, 1886 (Washington, DC: Government Printing Office, 1887), 359–458; Wm. G. Le Duc, “Report,” Annual Report of the Commissioner of Agriculture for the Year 1880 (Washington, DC: Government Printing Office, 1881), 32–35.
175. W. H. Thomas, “A Missouri Farmer Argues,” Prairie Farmer, Dec. 6, 1890, 769; William Elder, The American Farmer’s Markets at Home and Abroad (Philadelphia: Ringwalt and Brown, 1870), 3.
176. John Darwin, The Empire Project: The Rise and Fall of the British World-System, 1830–1970 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2009), 182.
177. “Commercial Results of a War with the United States,” Mark Lane Express and Agricultural Journal 73 (Dec. 30, 1895): 906; on fears of dependency among Populists, flour millers, and cattlemen, see Morton Rothstein, “The American West and Foreign Markets, 1850–1900,” in The Frontier in American Development: Essays in Honor of Paul Wallace Gates, ed. David M. Ellis, (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1969), 381–406.
178. James T. Dwyer, “Manufactures in Illinois,” Transactions of the Department of Agriculture of the State of Illinois (for the Year 1871) (Springfield: Journal Printing Office, 1872), 87–108. On frequency of Indian famines, James Vernon, Hunger: A Modern History (Cambridge: The Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, 2007),
51. On Indian grain exports, see also Mike Davis: Late Victorian Holocausts: El Niño Famines and the Making of the Third World (London: Verso, 2001), 26.
179. Markham, The Development, Strategy, and Traffic of the Illinois Central System, 8, 12, 14, 17; Sixty-Fourth Annual Report of the Illinois Central Railroad Company for the Year Ended June 30, 1914, np. On bananas and coconuts, see The Ten Best States of America for Agriculture, Horticulture, and General Industries, 18.
180. Orwin and Whetham, History of British Agriculture 1846–1914, 240–41, 257.
181. W. J. Gordon, “The Way of the World at Sea,” The Leisure Hour, July 1893, 604–08.
182. Report from the Select Committee on Preserved Meats (Navy), 70.
183. Testimony of George Hart, Report of the Committee Appointed by the Board of Trade to Inquire into Certain Questions Affecting the Mercantile Marine, II—Minutes of Evidence (London: House of Commons, 1903), 650, Parliamentary Papers Online.
184. Clements R. Markham, “Report of the Scurvy Committee,” The Academy, June 2, 1877, 485–86. Armour and Company: Containing Facts About the Business and Organization (Np: Armour and Company, 1917), 34.
185. Jimmy M. Skaggs, Prime Cut: Livestock Raising and Meatpacking in the United States, 1607–1983 (College Station: Texas A&M Press, 1986), 40.
186. John Regan, The Emigrant’s Guide to the Western States of America (Edinburgh: Oliver and Boyd, [1852]), 337.
187. “Must Have More Hogs,” The National Provisioner 57 (Nov. 17, 1917): 19.
188. Report of a Committee Appointed by the Secretary of State for War to Enquire into the Administration of the Transport and Supply Departments of the Army (London: 1867), 365, Parliamentary Papers Online.
189. Report from the Select Committee on the Abyssinian Expedition (London: 1870), 94, Parliamentary Papers Online.
190. Army Medical Department. Statistical, Sanitary, and Medical Reports, Volume VII, for the Year 1865 (London: 1867), 291, Parliamentary Papers Online.
191. “We May Feed British Army,” The National Provisioner 21 (Oct. 7, 1899): 12.
192. “Canned Meat for China,” The National Provisioner 23 (July 28, 1900): 12.