The Yoga Tradition

by Georg Feuerstein

  The doshâs are also often referred to in the literature of Hatha-Yoga, which is concerned with the optimal functioning of the body. Health is deemed a matter of the proper balance between the bodily constituents.18 These exist throughout the body but are present in different concentrations at various places. Thus, vâta is preeminent in the nervous system, heart, large intestines, lungs, bladder, and pelvis; pitta predominates in the liver, spleen, small intestines, endocrine glands, blood, and perspiration; kapha in the joints, mouth, head and neck, stomach, lymph, and adipose tissue. Vâta tends to accumulate below the navel, kapha above the diaphragm, and pitta between the diaphragm and navel.

  In addition to the three doshâs, yur-Veda also recognizes seven types of tissue (dhâtu) and three impure substances (mala). The dhâtus are blood plasma (rasa), blood (rakta), flesh (mâmsa), fat (meda), bone (asthi), bone marrow (majjan), and semen (shukra). The malas, or waste materials, are feces (purîsha), urine (mûtra), and perspiration (sveda, lit. “sweat”). These bodily components are occasionally mentioned in the Yoga literature as well.

  This is also true of the vulnerable or sensitive zones (marman), which are already mentioned in the Rig-Veda (6.75.18). According to yur-Veda, there are 107 marmans, which are vital connections between flesh and muscle, bones, joints, and sinews, or between veins. A hard blow to some of these marmans can cause death, as is part of the secret knowledge of the Chinese and Japanese martial arts. The South Indian martial arts practice of kalârippayattu recognizes 160 to 220 such sensitive points in the body. This system regards the body as being constituted of three layers, namely the fluid body (including tissue and waste products); the solid body of muscles, bones, and the marmans; and the subtle body consisting of the channels and gathering points of vital energy. Injury to a marman interrupts the flow of the wind element, thus causing severe physical problems that may result in death. Sometimes a vigorous slap to the injured area, administered promptly, can restore the flow of the life force and thus prevent the worst. The marmans depend on the flow of prâna, and without prâna there are no marmans. The flow of the life force through these sensitive spots is controlled by the moon. A similar teaching is present in ancient Hindu sexology, which recommends stimulating certain sensitive areas on the woman’s body only on particular lunar days.19

  Some Yoga scriptures, such as the Shândilya- Upanishad (1.8.1f.), speak of eighteen marmans, and according to the Kshurikâ-Upanishad (14), the yogin should cut through these vital spots by means of the “mind’s sharp blade.” In other words, here the marmans appear to be understood as blockages in the flow of the life force, which are removed through concentration and breath control.

  An important concept shared by yur-Veda and Yoga is that of ojas, or the energy of vitality, which is mentioned already in the Atharva-Veda (2.17.1). Both systems seek to increase ojas (that is, the “lower” variety) by various means. In Yoga, the most frequently recommended method for enhancing one’s vital power is sexual abstinence. Ojas decreases with age and is reduced through hunger, poor diet, overwork, anger, and worry-all the physical and mental circumstances that sap one’s zest for living. Their opposite conditions generate ojas and thus ensure good health. When ojas is low for longer periods, it gives rise to degenerative diseases and premature aging.

  Ojas is present in the entire body but is especially stored in the heart, which is also the physical anchorage of consciousness. Cakrâpani, in his commentary on the Caraka-Samhitâ, mentions that while there is half a handful of “lower ojas” in the body, there are only eight drops of the “higher ojas” in the heart. The slightest waste of this precious vital energy is thought to cause death, and it cannot be replenished.

  Furthermore, Hatha-Yoga and yur-Veda share certain purificatory techniques, notably the practice of self-induced vomiting (vamana) and physical cleansing (dhauti). These techniques have, among other things, a salutary effect on the body’s metabolism. yur-Veda, moreover, knows of thirteen kinds of internal heat (agni), of which the digestive heat (jâthara-agni) is often mentioned by the authorities of Hatha-Yoga.

  Physical well-being (ârogya) is definitely one of the prerequisites and intermediate goals of Hatha-Yoga. Even Patanjali, in his Yoga-Sûtra (3.46), mentions “adamantine robustness” of the body as one of the aspects of bodily perfection (kâya-sampad). In another aphorism (2.43), Patanjali speaks of the perfection of the body and the senses as a result of the dwindling of impurities by virtue of asceticism. Moreover, he states (2.38) that vitality (vîrya) is gained through chastity. In aphorism 1.30, again, Patanjali lists sickness (vyâdhi) as one of the distractions (vikshepa) of the mind that prevent progress in Yoga.

  The Shiva-Svarodaya, a yogic work that is several hundred years old, promotes breath control as the foremost means of achieving or maintaining well-being and for gaining occult knowledge and powers, as well as wisdom and even liberation. In one verse (314), the technique of svarodaya—from svara (“sound [of the breath]”) and udaya (“rising”)-is stated to be a science promulgated by the siddha-yogins.

  In the Sat-Karma-Samgraha (“Compendium of Right Acts”), a Yoga text authored by Cidghanânanda, a disciple of Gaganânanda of the Nâtha sect, a whole range of purificatory practices is outlined. These are intended to either stave off or cure all kinds of illnesses resulting from sheer misfortune or from carelessness in observing the prescribed dietary and other rules, such as those relative to the proper location and time. Cidghanânanda advises the yogin first to use postures (âsana) and occult medications to heal himself. When these fail, he should proceed with the techniques disclosed in the text.

  The link between Yoga and yur-Veda is clearly acknowledged in the sixteenth-century work by Yogânanda Nâtha, entitled yur-Veda-Sûtra, in which the author specifically makes use of Patanjali’s Yoga-Sûtra and also explores diet and fasting as efficient means to health. Food is examined in light of the relative predominance of the three gunas in it. The gunas-sattva, rajas, and tamas-are also part of the medical theory of yur-Veda. Imbalance in the bodily constituents or the humors suggest an imbalance in the gunas, and vice versa. All finite existence, in a way, is the result of a disequilibrium of the gunas; only at the transcendental level of Nature (prakriti-pradhâna) are they in a perfect balance. Sometimes the three humors (dosha) are regarded as somatic defects and the three gunas as mental flaws. They are correlated as follows: wind - sattva’, bile - rajas; phlegm - tamas.

  One of the practices of yur-Veda that meshes closely with Hatha-Yoga’s ideal of creating a long-lived, if not immortal, body is kâya-kalpa. This is a difficult ritual of rejuvenation requiring prolonged isolation in darkness, rigorous dietary constraints, and secret potions. The modern saint Tapasviji Maharaj reportedly underwent this treatment on several occasions, each time emerging from his solitary confinement in a dark hut looking and feeling thoroughly rejuvenated.

  The close connection between yur-Veda, Yoga, and alchemy (rasâyana, from râsa “essence” or “mercury” and ayana “course”) is particularly apparent in the medieval Siddha tradition of northern India. The adherents of this important tradition sought after bodily immortality through a sophisticated psychophysiological technology known as kâya-sâdhanâ, or “body cultivation.” Out of this grew the various schools of Hatha-Yoga, which, on one level, can almost be looked upon as the preventative branch of Hindu medicine. Interestingly, one book on medicine-by a certain Vrindâ-has the title Siddha-Yoga. Another medical treatise, ascribed to Nâgârjuna, bears the title Yoga-Shataka (“Century [of Verses] on Yoga”).

  South India has produced a second independent medical system that is the equivalent of yur-Veda. This system is associated with the Siddha tradition as it has developed in the Tamil-speaking countries. Even more than yur-Veda, it has a strong connection with alchemy and employs a large number of remedies derived from vegetables and chemicals. Its three principal diagnostic and therapeutic tools are astrology, mantras, and drugs, known in the Tamil language respectively as mani, mantiram, and
maruntu. It also makes use of postures (âsana) and breath control.

  This rival system of medicine, which has scarcely been researched, was founded by the legendary Sage Akattiyar (Sanskrit: Agastya), to whom over two hundred works are attributed. He is the first of the eighteen siddhas, or fully accomplished adepts, venerated in the south of the Indian peninsula. There was an ancient seer called Agastya, who composed several hymns of the Rig-Veda, and this archaic scripture (1.179) has even preserved a conversation between him and his wife Lohâmudrâ. He is remembered as having been of small stature and in iconography is typically depicted as a dwarf. His name has anciently been associated with South India, where he is held in the same high esteem that Matsyendra Nâtha enjoys in the North.

  Teraiyar, who is traditionally considered one of Agastya’s disciples but probably lived as late as the fifteenth century c.E., was an adept and a renowned healer. Of his many works only two are still available: the Cikamanivenpa and the Natikkottu (on pulse diagnosis). A fragment of the Noyanukavîti (on hygiene) also has survived. The last-mentioned work contains the following stanzas:

  We will eat only twice, not three times a day;

  we will sleep only at night, not during the day;

  we will have sexual intercourse only once a month;

  we will drink water only at meals, though we may feel thirsty;

  we will not eat the bulbous root of any plant except that of karanai;

  we will not eat any unripe fruit except the tender plantain;

  we shall take a short walk after a friendly meal;

  what has death then to do with us?

  Once in six months we shall take an emetic;

  we shall take a purgative once in four months;

  once in a month and a half, we shall take naciyam;20

  we shall have the head shaved twice in a fortnight;

  once every fourth day we shall anoint ourselves with oil and bathe;

  we shall apply collyrium to the eyes every third day;

  we shall never smell perfumes or flowers in the middle of the night;

  what has death then to do with us?21

  It is clear from the above lines that the siddhas of South India, like their northern counterparts, were greatly interested in longevity, and were even aspiring to immortality in a transubstantiated body. More will be said about their teachings in Chapters 17 and 18.

  VI. YOGA AND HINDU RELIGION

  Yoga is not religion in the conventional sense but rather spirituality, esotericism, or mysticism. Yet, whether we look at Hinduism, Buddhism, Jainism, or Sikhism, Yoga is as a rule intimately connected with the cosmologies as well as the religious beliefs and practices of these distinct traditions. This has proven a stumbling block for many Western Yoga practitioners, who neither are informed about these traditions nor, perhaps, are on good terms with their own religious heritage, be it Christianity or Judaism. In particular, they are startled by the numerous deities of the Hindu, Buddhist, and Jaina pantheons and are wondering how they relate to actual Yoga practice and to the teaching of nondualism (advaita) characteristic of most forms of Yoga. Those students who have monotheistic leanings may even be concerned about succumbing to polytheism, which is considered a sin in the Judeo-Christian tradition. Since the focus of this book is on Hindu Yoga, I propose to introduce the major Gods and Goddesses of Hinduism, which make their appearance here and there in the Sanskrit and vernacular literature of Yoga. The Jainas by and large have retained the same deities, and many Hindu deities also form part of the expansive Buddhist pantheon.

  The various deities are invoked and worshiped as manifestations or personifications of the ultimate Reality, and in the eyes of their worshipers are each the supreme Godhead. Worshipers of God Shiva, for instance, regard Shiva as transcendental, formless, and qualityless (nirguna), but for the purpose of worship bestow upon this featureless Being certain anthropomorphic features or qualities (guna)-such as goodness, beauty, power, and grace. In relation to Shiva, all other deities are looked upon as high beings occupying various heavenly realms (loka). In Christian terminology, they are archangels or angels. For the community of Vishnu devotees, the situation is reversed. For them, Vishnu is the supreme Godhead, while all other deities-including Shiva-are merely devas, “shining ones,” who have a status equivalent to that of angelic beings in the Judeo-Christian and Islamic traditions.

  Early on, the deities were interpreted from three perspectives: their material (âdhibhautika), psychological (adhyâtmika), and spiritual (âdhidaivika) significance. For instance, the Vedic God Agni signifies the actual sacrificial fire, the sacrificer’s inner fire (related to the serpent power or kundalinî-shakti), and the divine fire or transcendental Light. Whenever we consider a deity, we must bear all three aspects in mind. Thus far, most scholars have focused only on the first aspect, which has caused them to view (and sometimes dismiss) the Vedic spirituality as merely “naturalistic.” Upon closer study, however, we realize that the Vedic seers and sages were steeped in symbolism and were greatly skilled in the use of metaphoric language. It is our understanding, not their symbolic communication, that is inadequate.

  Since Vedic times, India’s “theologians” have spoken of thirty-three deities, though in actual practice there have long been many more mentioned in the scriptures. The following brief discussion focuses on only a few deities who are especially associated with Yoga.

  To begin with Shiva (“Benign one”), who is mentioned as early as in the Rig-Veda (1.114; 2.33): He is the focal point of Shaivism, that is, the Shaiva tradition of worship and theology. He is the deity of yogins par excellence and is often depicted as a yogin, with long, matted hair, a body besmeared with ashes, and a garland of skulls-all signs of his utter renunciation. In his hair is the crescent moon symbolizing mystical vision and knowledge. His three eyes symbolize sun, moon, and fire, and they reveal to him everything in the past, present, and future. The central or “third” eye, located at the forehead, is connected with the cosmic fire, and a single glance from this eye can incinerate the entire universe. The serpent coiled around his neck symbolizes the mysterious spiritual energy of kundalinî.

  The Gangâ (Ganges) River that cascades from the crown of Shiva’s head is a symbol of perpetual purification, which is the mechanism underlying his gift of spiritual liberation bestowed upon devotees. The tiger skin on which he is seated represents power (shakti), and his four arms are a sign of his perfect control over the four cardinal directions. His trident represents the three primary qualities (guna) of Nature, namely tamas, rajas, and sattva. The animal commonly associated with him is the bull called Nandin (“Delightful”), a symbol of sexual energy, which Shiva has mastered perfectly. The lion often shown in images of Shiva symbolizes greed for food, which he also has conquered.

  Shiva has from the beginning been closely associated with Rudra (“Howler”), a deity especially connected with the air element and its diverse manifestations (i.e., wind, storm, thunder, and lightning but also life energy and the breath, etc.). Rudra, however, is also understood to be a great healer, and the same function is hinted at in Shiva’s name. In later Hinduism, Shiva became the destructive aspect of the famous trinity (trimûrti), the other two being Vishnu (representing the principle of preservation) and Brahma (standing for the principle of creation). As such, Shiva is often called Hara (“Remover”). He is typically pictured as dwelling on Mount Kailâsa with his divine spouse Pârvatî (“She who dwells on the mountain”). In many Tantras, he figures as the first teacher of esoteric knowledge. As the ultimate Reality, the Shaivas invoke him as Maheshvara (“Great Lord,” from mahâ “great” and îshvara “lord”). As the giver of joy or serenity he is called Shankara, and as the abode of delight he is given the name Shambhu. Other names are Pashupati (“Lord of the beasts”), Îshana (“Ruler”) and, not least, Mahâdeva (“Great God”).

  Another symbol typically connected with Shiva and having many associations is the linga. This word is often translated as “phallus,” bu
t it literally means “sign” and stands for the principle of creativity per se. The linga (sometimes rendered as “lingam” in English) is the creative core of cosmic existence (prakriti), which is undivided and causal. Its counterpole is the feminine principle of yoni (“womb,” “source”). Together, both these principles weave the tapestry of space-time. Some Shaivas-notably the Lingâyatas-wear the shiva-linga as an amulet, and in Tantric contexts, stone or metal representations of the linga set in yoni bowls remind practitioners of the bipolar nature of all manifest existence: The world is a play of Shiva and Pârvatî (Shakti), or Consciousness and Energy.

  Vishnu (“Pervader”) is the object of worship among the Vaishnavas. Vaishnavism has its roots in Vedic times, as Vishnu is mentioned already in the Rig-Veda (e.g., 1.23; 154; 8.12; 29). His most important other names are Hari (“Remover”), Nârâyâna (“Abode of humans”), and Vâsudeva (“God of [all] things”). Between the successive periods of world creation, mythology pictures Vishnu as resting in a formless state on the cosmic serpent Shesha (or Ananta) floating in the infinite ocean of unmanifest existence.

  Vishnu, like Shiva, is often represented with four arms signifying his omnipresence and omnipotence. His attributes include the conch (symbol of creation), the discus (standing for the universal mind), the lotus (representing the universe), the bow and arrows (symbolizing the ego sense and the senses), the mace (standing for the life force), the lock of golden hair on the left side of his chest (representing the core of Nature), the chariot (symbolizing the mind as the principle of action), and his black or dark blue color (suggesting the infinite expanse of ether/space, the first of five elements).

  In order to restore the moral order (dharma) on Earth, Vishnu is said to have incarnated several times. His ten incarnations (avatâra, “descent”) are: