The Yoga Tradition

by Georg Feuerstein

  Evening after evening, Agni is our household’s lord. Morning after morning, He is the giver of good intentions. May You be for us the giver of good of every kind. May we adorn ourselves by kindling You.

  Morning after morning, Agni is our household’s lord. Evening after evening, He is the giver of good intentions. May You be for us the giver of good of every kind. May we thrive a hundred winters by kindling You.

  May I not fall short of food. To the food- eating Lord of Food, to Agni [who is Rudra] be homage. (19.55.1–5)

  The first of the above hymns is a love charm, the second is a spell against curses, and the third is an incantation addressed to Agni for prosperity. These prayers and spells give some indication of the range of concerns expressed in the “fourth” Veda.

  Of the many mystical passages in the Atharva- Veda, most of which defy full comprehension, the following selection of hymns appear to imply some esoteric knowledge that could feasibly be linked to Proto-Yoga and the related Proto-Sâmkhya tradition.

  2.1: This hymn speaks of the seer Vena of whom it is said that he saw that which is the highest secret, “where everything becomes of one form.”

  4.1: This is another enigmatic hymn, which tells of Vena’s mystic Realization. Vena is said to have uncovered the womb (yoni) of being and nonbeing.

  5.1: This hymn is purposely obscure and probably grammatically corrupt in many parts. However, judging from the sophisticated concepts expressed, its composer was evidently aware of a deep mystical tradition.

  7.5: This sûta teaches of the inner sacrifice, which became the main theme of the early Upanishads. It starts with the line, “By the sacrifice the Gods sacrificed to the sacrifice.” That is, the deities themselves performed sacrifices, and their sacrifices had no other purpose than the action of sacrifice, which is the giving of oneself. The sacrifice is described as being the overlord of the Gods who extended, or taught, the sacrifice to human beings.

  8.9: This cosmogonic hymn, which extols Virâj, poses a number of esoteric riddles. Virâj is the female (in other hymns also male) creative principle, which the anonymous author declares can be seen by some and not by others. “Breathless, She goes by the breath of breathing ones.”

  8.10:The subject of this hymn is again Virâj, who is said to ascend and descend into the householder’s fire. The householder who knows this secret is said to be “house-sacrificing” (grihamedhin).

  9.1: This cosmogonic hymn intimates the secret of the “honey whip” (mâdhû-kashâ). This mysterious substance is said to have sprung from the elements that were generated by the Gods and upon which the sages contemplate. From what we can gather from the difficult passages, the honeyed whip corresponds to the later idea, found in Tantra and Hatha-Yoga, of the internal ambrosia, the nectar of immortality held to drip from a secret place near the palate. The Vedic seers aspired to win the honey, to experience the transcendental splendor within their own body-mind. The honey doctrine (mâdhû- vidyâ) can be met with in the ancient Brihad- ranyaka-Upanishad (2.5.14), where we find this passage:

  The Self (âtman) is honey for all things, and all things are honey for this Self. This shining, immortal Person who is in this Self, and, with reference to oneself, this shining, immortal Person who exists as the Self—he. is just this Self, this Immortal, this Absolute, this All.

  10.7: This is a mystical hymn, which consists of a series of probing questions, and which discloses the secret doctrine of the World Pillar (skambha) that sustains all of creation: In what part of Him resides austerity (tapas)? Where in Him abides the [cosmic] Order? Where vows? Where faith? In what part of Him is truth stationed? How far has the Divine penetrated its own creation? How much of the Divine has entered the past? How much the future?

  According to verse 17, the Divine, or World Pillar, is known by those who know the transcendental Reality (brahman) within their own heart. Verse 23 mentions that thirty-three deities protect the secret treasure, that is, the Divine. “Only the knowers of brahman,” declares verse 27, “know these thirty-three deities.” This is pure Vedânta. The Divine, at the center of the world, is attainable through the practice of austerities (tapas) states verse 38. Verse 40 tells us that in the seer who has reached this spiritual zenith are all the lights. In verse 15, the nâdîs (the currents or “rivers” of the life force) are mentioned, which shows the age of such notions about the subtle or energetic body.

  10.8: This is a hymn hinting at the author’s occult understanding about the origin of the cosmos and expressing wonder at the complexity of creation. A translation is given in Source Reading 6.

  11.4: This sûkta extols the life force (prâna), which is said to clothe man, as a father could clothe his dear son (verse 11).

  11.5: Here the Vedic novice (brahmacârin) is spoken of, and the symbolism of his initiation and subsequent spiritual practice are briefly discussed.

  15.1–18: This is the famous Vrâtya-Khânda (“Book of the Vrâtyas”), which will be discussed in the next section.

  SOURCE READING 6

  Atharva-Veda (Selection)

  From a spiritual point of view, the following hymn (10.8) is one of the most significant of the Atharva-Veda and appears to be intimately connected with hymn 10.7, divulging the secret lore about the World Pillar (skambha). In its deep symbolism, which we can only barely grasp, the present hymn reminds one of Dîrghatamas’s riddles in the Rig-Veda (1.164).

  Obeisance to the foremost brahman to whom alone belongs Heaven, who presides over past, future, and all [things]. (1)

  Established by the Pillar (skambha). Heaven and Earth are propped apart. This entire [universe], whatever breathes or closes down (nimesha), is embodied (âtmanvat) in the Pillar. (2)

  Three [kinds of] creatures have gone forth [into transmigration], while others have entered completely into the sun (arka).36 The Great one remains, measuring out the sky. The Golden one [i.e., the sun] has entered the golden [regions].37 (3)

  Twelve rims, one wheel (cakra). three naves: Who has understood this? Three hundred and sixty spokes and [the same number of] pins, which are firmly set. (4)

  Consider this well, O Savitrî: six twins [and] one born singly. They desire relationship with the one who is born singly.38 (5)

  It is manifest and yet is established in the hidden (guhâ). Its name is “Aged,” “Great Place.” In That this entire [universe] is fixed. What moves and breathes is established [in That]. (6)

  The one wheel turns with a single rim, with one thousand imperishables (akshara),39 rising in front [i.e., the east] and setting in the back [i.e., the west]. With one half it has engendered the entire world, but what has become of its [other] half? (7)

  A carriage of five [horses] conducts the First[-born],40 with harnessed side-horses pulling along [as well]. What has not been traversed is invisible; not so what has been traversed. What is above [the horizon] is closer; what is below [the horizon] is more remote. (8)

  The opening of the vessel is on the side, and its bottom is above. Therein dwells the all-formed glory. There the seven seers,41 who are the protectors of this Great one, are seated together. (9)

  I ask you about the praise (ric) that is yoked (yujyate) front and back, that is yoked everywhere all round, and by which the sacrifice (yajna) is spread out to the east.42 (10)

  That which stirs, flies, stands still, breathes, or breathes not, closes [the eyes] but exists, sustains the earth and, being all-formed, is singular only. (11)

  That which is endless is extended in every direction: the endless and the ending come together. These the Guardian [i.e., the sun] of the firmament (nâka), who knows past and future, continues to hold apart. (12)

  Prajâpati [i.e., the Lord of Creatures] stirs in the [cosmic] womb (garbha). Invisible, He is born manifold. With one half He has engendered the whole universe, but what bright indication is there of His other half?43 (13)

  That Water Bearer who carries up the water in a pot,44 all see Him with the eye, but not all know [Him] with the mind.45 (14)


  The great Spirit (yaksha) at the center of the universe dwells afar in wholeness, and afar He vanishes through lack—to Him the rulers [of the world] bear oblations. (15)

  Whence the sun rises and where it goes to set, that verily I deem the Foremost (jyeshtha). Nothing exceeds That! (16)

  Those who presently, formerly,46 and anciently speak knowingly everywhere of the Veda, they all speak only of ditya (i.e., the sun], the second Agni and threefold swan (hamsa).47 (17)

  A thousand days’ journey stretches out His wings, the golden swan flying across the sky. He, placing all the Gods in His chest, moves about, overseeing all the worlds. (18)

  In whom the Foremost rests. He glows up above through truth, He looks down through prayer (brahman), and He breathes crosswise [in the form of the wind] through the life force (prâna). (19)

  He who indeed knows the churning sticks by which the [precious] thing (vasu) [i.e., the fire] is kindled, he may deem to know the Foremost; he should know the great brâhmana. (20)

  Footless He was born in the beginning. In the beginning, He brought forth Heaven (svar).48 Having become four-footed49 and capable of eating, He took to Himself all food.50 (21)

  He who worships the eternal supreme God (deva) shall become capable of eating and shall eat many [kinds of] food. (22)

  They call Him eternal; indeed. He may even now be renewed: Day and night are regenerated out of each other’s forms. (23)

  A hundred, a thousand, a myriad, a hundred million, countless [numbers of] His own dwell in Him. That of Him they consume51 while He only looks on. Therefore this God is radiant thus. (24)

  The One is finer than a hair;52 the One is not even visible. Hence the deity (devatâ) who is more embracing [than this universe] is dear to me. (25)

  This beautiful unaging [deity] is in the house [i.e., in the body] of a mortal. He for whom [this deity] was made lies [still]; he who has made [this deity] has become old.53 (26)

  You are woman. You are man. You are boy or a girl. You who are aged totter with a staff. When born. You face everywhere.54 (27)

  You are their father and also (heir son. You are their superior (jyeshtha) and their inferior. The one God, who has entered the mind, is born first and [yet] He is within the [cosmic] womb. (28)

  From the Whole (pûrna) He turns up the Whole. The Whole pours forth as the Whole. Now may we also know That from which it is poured out. (29)

  She, the eternal one, was born from eternity. She, the ancient one, encompassed all. The great Goddess (devî), radiant at dawn,55 gazes at everyone in the twinkling [of an eye]. (30)

  The deity named Avi56 abides, enveloped by the [cosmic] order (rita). These golden57 trees are turned golden because of Her form. (31)

  [Because one is] close, one cannot abandon [that deity]; [although] being close, one does not see [that deity easily].58 Behold the wisdom (kâvya) of the God. He did not [ever] die, nor does He grow old. (32)

  The words impelled by the unpreceded [deity] speak [the truth] as it is.59 Wherever they go speaking that, they declare the great brâhmana. (33)

  That in which Gods and humans are fastened like spokes in a nave—that in which [the world?] is placed by [divine] magical powers (mâyâ), I ask of you. Rower of the Waters.60 (34)

  They who impel the wind to blow, who yield the five directions together, the Gods who deemed themselves above the [sacrificial] offering, the leaders of the waters—who were they? (35)

  One of them dwells in this earth. One has become the mid-region (antariksha) all round. He who is the dispenser among them gives the sky (diva). Some protect all regions. (36)

  He who may know the stretched-out thread (sûtra) into which these creatures are woven, who may know the thread of the thread, he may [indeed) know the great brâhmana. (37)

  I know the stretched-out thread into which these creatures are woven. Likewise I know the thread of the thread, which is the great brâhmana. (38)

  When Agni went burning across Heaven and Earth, consuming all, when the wives [i.e., the flames) of a single [husband, i.e., fire] stood higher than [everything!, where then was Mâtarîshvan?61 (39)

  Mâtarîshvan had entered into the [cosmic] waters [while] the Gods were in the oceans. Great indeed was the measurer (vimâna) of the sky. The purifier (pavamâna) entered the golden ones.62 (40)

  Higher, as it were, than the gâyatrî, He went to immortality (amrita). Those who know well chant (sâma) by chant, where did they see the Unborn (aja)63? (41)

  Sheltering and assembling [all] things (vasu), God Savitrî as it were [possesses] the quality of truth (satya). As Indra He stands [firm] in the battle for [spiritual] riches. (42)

  The lotus of nine doors [i.e., the body and its nine orifices] covered with the three strands (guna) [i.e., skin, nails, and hair?)—whatever embodied (âtmanvat) Spirit (yaksha) is within it. that verily the knowers of brahman know. (43)

  Desireless, wise, immortal, self-abiding (svayambhu), content with the essence (rasa), lacking nothing—knowing that wise, unaging, youthful Self (âtman), one is not afraid of death.64 (44)

  VI. THE MYSTERIOUS VRTYA BROTHERHOODS

  Ancient India holds many riddles for the modern historian. The spiritual brotherhood of the Vrâtyas is perhaps the most intriguing enigma. The statements about the Vrâtyas in Indian literature are confusing and often contradictory, and their intellectual legacy appears to have been suppressed and to an unknown degree distorted by the post-Vedic orthodoxy. Little wonder that most scholars have shied away from a frontal attack on their problematic nature. The only really comprehensive study is that by the German Yoga researcher Jakob Wilhelm Hauer (1927), who never completed the announced second volume. The importance of the Vrâtyas for the present survey lies in the fact that they were connected with the early evolution of Yoga and were in fact instrumental in the transmission of Yogalike knowledge.

  The single most important text containing perhaps largely authentic Vrâtya wisdom is the Vrâtya-Khânda (book 15) of the Atharva-Veda. Unfortunately, most of its hymns are scarcely intelligible. Nevertheless, there are a number of well-established points that, when viewed together, result in at least a rough picture of these people. The Vrâtyas were one of the many communities that did not belong to the orthodox kernel of Vedic society but had their own set of customs and values.65 They roamed the country, mostly the northeast of India, in groups (vrâta) united by a vow (also vrâta). Some of them apparently traveled on their own and were known as eka- vrâtyas, the word eka meaning “singular” or “solitary.”

  “He stood erect for a year. The Gods said to him: ‘Vrâtya, why do you stand?’ He said: ‘Let them bring me a seat.’ They brought a seat for that Vrâtya. Summer and spring were two of its legs, autumn and the rains were [the other] two.”

  —Atharva-Veda 15.3.1-4

  In the eyes of their orthodox cousins, who upheld the Vedic sacrificial religion, the Vrâtyas were despicable outcasts who spoke the same tongue by accident and who were fit to become victims in human sacrifice (purusha- medha), which may have been enacted literally in the early Vedic period. This is the pervasive attitude in the early Sûtra literature, such as the Grihya-Sûtras and also the Dharma-Sûtras of pastamba, Baudhâyana, and Yâjnavalkya. Nevertheless, the Vrâtyas must have been numerous and influential, for later on the orthodox priesthood, the brâhmanas (brahmins in English), introduced special rites by which a Vrâtya could be purified and accepted into the mainstream of Vedic society. After their conversion most seem to have settled down and taken up a trade.

  The Vrâtyas frequented especially the country of Mâgadha (modern Bihar) in northeastern India—the country of the two great heresies of Buddhism and Jainism, and later also of Tantra. They also appear to have had a vital relationship with the kshatriya, or warrior, class that played a substantial role in the formation of early Upanishadic thought. Thus, according to one hymn of the Atharva-Veda (15.8), the (deified) solitary Vrâtya-was the originator of the warrior (râjanya) class. Indeed, kings like Ajâta
shatru and the fabulously wealthy Janaka were among the first to promote the teaching of nondualism that is associated with the Vedânta of the Upanishads, and it would not be too farfetched to surmise that in many cases they might have been inspired directly by the Vrâtyas. Noteworthy is the case of the mighty King Prithu, who, according to the Jaiminîya-Upanishad-Brâhmana, received instruction about the sacred syllable om from the seer Vena, who is called the “divine Vrâtya.”

  The Vrâtyas apparently traveled in groups of thirty- three, and each group had its own leader. Members were distinguished on the principle of seniority. Some are said to have “quietened the penis”—that is, mastered their sexual drive. The ancient Sanskrit phrase for this accomplishment is shamanîya-medhra, which reminds one of the yogic state of ûrdhva-retas; that is, the upward conduction of semen in those who are adepts in celibacy. Interestingly enough, the phrase ûrdhva-retas is also employed in conjunction with God Rudra, whom the Vrâtyas worshiped together with Vâyu, the God of Wind and ecstatic flight.

  The Vrâtyas wore simple garments, with red or black borders, tied to their loins, and a red turbanlike headdress. They used silver ornaments for neck or breast, wore sandals, and carried a whip and a small bow but no arrows. This and other evidence point to the fact that the Vrâtyas were organized into sacred brotherhoods, perhaps of a military origin. They traveled in primitive carts drawn by a horse and a mule; during their religious ceremonies the carts served as sacrificial altars. Each group was accompanied by a professional bard, known as mâgadha or sûta, and a female called pumshcalî (“man-mover”). The bard and the sacred prostitute performed the sexual rite in the great midsummer ceremony, the so-called mahâ-vrâta (“great vow”), which also involved railing and obscene dialogues. Without question, the bard and the sacred prostitute enacted the creative play between God and Goddess. Anticipating the bipolar metaphysics of later Tantra, the Vrâtyas pictured God Rudra (“Howler” or “Roarer”) as being accompanied by a drum-beating female deity reminiscent of the Goddess Kâlî of Hinduism.