The Yoga Tradition

by Georg Feuerstein

  Through the relaxation of the causes of attachment [to one’s body] and through the experience of going-forth. consciousness [is capable of] entering another body. (3.38)

  Through mastery of the up-breath (udâna) [the yogin gains the power of] nonadhesion to water, mud, or thorns and [the power of) rising up [from them]. (3.39)

  Comments: Early on, the yogins discovered that there are different aspects to the life force (prâna), manifesting as the breath. Each yields different paranormal powers when fully mastered.

  Through mastery of the mid-breath (samâna) [he acquires] effulgence. (3.40)

  Through [the practice of] constraint upon the relation between car and space (âkâsha) [he acquires] the “divine ear” (divya-shrotra). (3.41)

  Comments: Space, which is regarded as a radiant etheric medium, is one of the five elements of the material dimension of Nature.

  Through [the practice of] constraint upon the relation between body and space and by coinciding [in his consciousness] with light [objects], such as cotton, [the yogin obtains the power of] traveling through space. (3.42)

  Comments: Through ecstatic identification with a cotton ball, a spider’s thread, or a cloud, the yogin is said to be able to levitate.

  An external, nonimaginary fluctuation (vritti) [of consciousness] is the “great incorporeal” from which [comes] the dwindling of the coverings of the [inner] light. (3.43)

  Comments: In our imagination we can reach beyond the boundaries of the body. But there is also a special yogic practice by which consciousness itself can move out of the body and gather information about the external world. This practice precedes the yogic technique of actually entering into another body. The Sanskrit commentators insist that this is not an imaginary experience.

  Through [the practice of] constraint upon the coarse, the essential form, the subtle, the connectedness, and the purposiveness [of objects] [the yogin gains] mastery over the elements. (3.44)

  Thence [results] the manifestation [of the great psychic powers], such as “atomization” (animan) and so on, perfection of the body, and the indestructibility of its constituents. (3.45)

  Beauty, gracefulness, and adamant robustness [constitute! the perfection of the body. (3.46)

  Through [the practice of] constraint upon [the process of] perception, the essential form, I-am-ness, connectedness, and purposiveness (the yogin gains] mastery over the sense organs. (3.47)

  Thence [comes about) fleetness [as of] the mind, the state lacking sense organs, and the mastery over the matrix [of Nature]. (3.48)

  [The yogin who enjoys] only the vision of the distinction between the Self and the sattva [gains] supremacy over all states [of existence] and omniscience. (3.49)

  Through dispassion toward even that [exalted vision], with the dwindling of the seeds of the defects, [he achieves] the aloneness (kaivalya) [of the Power of seeing). (3.50)

  Upon the invitation of high-placed [beings], [he should give himself] no cause for attachment or pride, because of (the danger of) renewed and undesired inclination [for lower levels of existence]. (3.51)

  Through [the practice of) constraint upon the moment (kshana) [of time] and its sequence [the yogin obtains) the wisdom born of discernment. (3.52)

  Thence [arises for him] the awareness of [the difference between] similars that cannot normally be distinguished due to an indeterminateness of the distinctions of species, appearance, and position. (3.53)

  The wisdom born of discernment is the “deliverer” (târaka), and is omniobjective, omnitemporal. and nonsequential. (3.54)

  With [the attainment of] equality in purity between the Self and the sattva, the aloneness [of the Power of seeing is established). End (iti). (3.55)

  IV. Kaivalya-Pâda (“Chapter on Liberation”)

  The powers (siddhi) are the result of birth, herbs, mantras, asceticism, or ecstasy. (4.1)

  Comments: This aphorism rightly belongs to the previous chapter. Its appearance here can be explained by the fact that the commentators have misunderstood the intent of the opening sûtras of the present chapter.

  The transformation into another species (jâti) [is possible] because of the superabundance of Nature. (4.2)

  Comments: This and the following aphorisms have generally been understood to refer to the magical power of creating artificial body-minds upon which the yogin transfers his own karma. But a careful reading of this section suggests a more philosophical interpretation. For. it appears, what Patanjali is explaining here is the process of individuation, as it applies to the cosmos itself.

  The incidental cause (nimitta) does not initiate the creations (prakriti), but [merely is responsible for] the singling out of possibilities—like a farmer [who irrigates a field by selecting appropriate pathways for the water]. (4.3)

  The individualized consciousnesses (nirmâna-citta) [proceed] from the essential I-am-ness (asmitâ-mâtra). (4.4)

  [Although the numerous individualized consciousnesses are engaged] in distinct activities, the one (eka) consciousness is the originator of [all] the others. (4.5)

  Of these [individualized consciousnesses that consciousness which is] born of meditation is without [karmic] deposit. (4.6)

  The karma of a yogin is neither black nor white; for others it is threefold [i.e., mixed]. (4.7)

  Thence [follows] the manifestation of only those traits (vâsanâ) [in the depths of consciousness] that correspond to the fruition of their [particular karma]. (4.8)

  On account of the uniformity between the [deep] memory and the activators (samskâra) [there is] a continuity [between the manifestation of the subliminal activators and the karmic cause], even though [cause and effect] may be separated [in terms of] place, time, and species. (4.9)

  Comments: This aphorism explains, in a somewhat obscure fashion, that the karmic link between a person’s previous existence and the present life is not arbitrary. It is preserved by the subliminal activators. Thus, nobody suffers any karmic injustice. Every individual reaps what he or she has sown in former lives.

  And these [activators in the depths of consciousness] are without beginning because of the perpetuity of the primordial will [inherent in nature]. (4.10)

  Because of the connection [of the traits in the depths of consciousness] with the [karmic] cause, the fruit, the substratum, and the support, [it follows that] with the disappearance of these [factors], the disappearance of those [traits is likewise brought about]. (4.11)

  Past and future as such exist because of the [visible] difference in the [developmental] paths of the forms (dharma) [produced by Nature]. (4.12)

  These [forms] are manifest or subtle and composed of the [three] constituents (guna). (4.13)

  The “thatness” (tattva) of an object [stems] from the homogeneity in the transformations [of the primary constituents (guna) of Nature]. (4.14)

  Comments: By “thatness” is meant the peculiar stability that gives one the impression of there being a solid object, whereas everything is constantly in a state of flux, as the Greek philosopher Heraclitus realized many centuries before Patanjali.

  In view of the multiplicity of consciousnesses [as opposed to] the singleness of (perceived) objects, both [belong to] separate levels [of existence]. (4.15)

  And the object is not dependent on a single consciousness; this is unprovable; besides, what could [such an imaginary object possibly] be? (*4.16)

  Comments: This aphorism is missing in some of the Sanskrit manuscripts, and it is quite likely that it belongs to Vyâsa’s Yoga-Bhâshya. The idea expressed here is that objects have an independent existence. This implies a rejection of the radical idealism of certain schools of Mahâyâna Buddhism.

  An object is known or not known by reason of the required “coloration” (uparâga) of consciousness by that [object]. (4.17)

  The fluctuations of consciousness are always known by their “superior,” because of the immutability of the Self. (4.18)

  Comments: The transcendental Self, which undergoes no change,
is held to be superior to the changeable forms and realms of Nature, which includes the finite consciousness.

  That [consciousness] has no self-luminosity because of its being seen [by the Self]. (4.19)

  Comments: It is a common notion of Indian thought that only the Self has its own light, whereas the finite or empirical consciousness is, like the moon, illuminated by borrowed light.

  And [this implies] the impossibility-of-cognizing both [consciousness and object] simultaneously. (4.20)

  If consciousness were perceived by another [consciousness], [this would lead to an infinite] regress from cognition (buddhi) to cognition and the confusion of memory. (4.21)

  When the unchanging Awareness (citi) assumes the shape of that [consciousness], experience of one’s own cognitions [is made possible]. (4.22)

  [Provided that] consciousness is “colored” by the Seer and the Seen, [it can perceive] any object. (4.23)

  Comments: For the ordinary human consciousness to exist, there must be the presence of the transcendental Self (the Seer) and of Nature (the Seen) in its countless forms.

  That [consciousness], though speckled with countless traits (vâsanâ). is other-purposed due to [its being limited to] collaborative activity. (4.24)7

  Comments: Even though consciousness is a mechanism of Nature, it shares in the great developmental orientation of Nature, which is, ultimately, to bring about Self-realization, or liberation.

  For him who sees the distinction [between the Self and the sattva, there comes about] the discontinuation of the projection of the [false] self-sense (âtma-bhâva). (4.25)

  Then consciousness, inclined toward discernment, is borne onward toward the aloneness (kaivalva) [of the Power of seeing]. (4.26)

  In the intervals of that [involuting consciousness], other [new] ideas [may arise] from the activators [in the depths of consciousness]. (4.27)

  Their cessation [is accomplished by the same means] as described fin aphorism 2.10] for the causes-of-affliction (klesha). (4.28)

  For (the yogin who is] always nonexploitative even in [the state of elevation, there follows], through the vision of discernment, the ecstasy called “dharma cloud” (dharma- megha). (4.29)

  Comments: It is not clear what the precise meaning of the term dharma is here. Some translators have rendered it as “virtue,” but at that level of ecstatic realization, it makes little sense to speak of the yogin as virtuous or not virtuous. He has transcended the moral categories of ordinary life. More appropriately, dharma could here be understood, as in certain Buddhist contexts, to refer to the primal Reality. In other words, at the consummation of the vision of discernment, the yogin is, as it were, enveloped by the Self. This ecstasy is a transitional phase that removes all spiritual ignorance and therefore all its fateful repercussions (such as karma and suffering), and is followed directly by the event of liberation.

  Thence [follows] the discontinuation of the causes-of-affliction (klesha) and of karma. (4.30)

  Then, [when] all coverings of imperfection are removed, little [remains] to be known because of the infinity of the [resulting] wisdom. (4.31)

  Thence [comes about] the termination of the sequences in the transformations of the constituents (guna) [of Nature] whose purpose is fulfilled. (4.32)

  Sequence is [that which is] correlative to the moment [of time], apprehensible at the extreme end of a [particular] transformation. (4.33)

  Comments: Patanjali argues that there is a correlation between the unit of time, called “moment” (kshana), and the ultimate unit of the process of transformation, called “sequence” (krama). This atomistic conception of time foreshadows contemporary ideas about the discontinuous nature of time and of the space-time continuum.

  The involution (pratisarga) of the constituents (guna), [which are now] devoid of purpose for the Self, is [what is called] the aloneness [of the Power of seeing], or the establishment of the Power of Awareness (citi-shakti) in its essential form. End (iti). (4.34)

  Comments: Upon Self-realization, or liberation, the fundamental constituents (guna) of the adept’s body-mind have no further purpose and so gradually resolve back into the transcendental ground of Nature. This implies that Patanjali looks upon Self-realization as coinciding with the death of the finite body-mind. What remains is the eternal Witness, the Power of Awareness, or Self (purusha).

  III. THE ELABORATION OF WISDOM—THE COMMENTARIAL LITERATURE

  Sûtras were not created in the first blush of a tradition or school of thought. Rather they were authoritative summaries that drew on many generations of thinking and debating. But their conciseness proved both a stumbling block and an advantage. On one hand, the sutra style gave rise to much ambiguity: As the oral transmission of the teachings became weak, the original ideas and formulations were gradually lost from sight, which encouraged the surfacing of sometimes widely divergent interpretations. For instance, the Brahma-Sûtra of Bâdarâyana, a key scripture of Vedânta composed perhaps around 200 C.E., has been cited in support of nondualist (advaita) as well as dualist (dvaita) schools of metaphysics. On the other hand, the inbuilt ambiguity in the Sûtra works allowed just such refreshing and fertile variation.

  Even the most creative minds of traditional India were obliged to weave their innovative thoughts within the framework of their own tradition, whether it was Vedânta, Buddhism, Jainism, or Yoga. They had to take existing authoritative opinion into account or at least pay lip service to it. At any rate, rather than hemming in creativity, the philosophical Sûtra works stimulated discussion and dissent. They gave rise to commentaries, which occasioned new commentaries, subcommentaries, and glosses thereon. Patanjali’s Yoga-Sûtra, too, inspired later generations to produce a considerable commentarial literature. There are Bhâshyas (original explanatory works containing much background information), Vrittis (original commentaries offering word- by-word explanations), Tîkâs (glosses on commentaries), and Upatîkâs (subglosses on glosses). Typical examples of a Tîkâ are Vâcaspati Mishra’s Tattva- Vaishâradî and Vijnâna Bhikshu’s Yoga-Vârttika—both of which are glosses on Vyâsa’s Yoga-Bhâshya, whereas the Pâtanjala-Rahasya of Râghavânanda, for instance, belongs to the category of subglosses.

  The Yoga-Bhâshya of Vyâsa

  The oldest extant commentary on the Yoga-Sûtra is the Yoga-Bhâshya (“Discussion on Yoga”) by Vyâsa. It was probably composed in the fifth century C.E.7 Its author is allegedly the same person who was also responsible for collecting the four Vedic hymnodies, the Mahâbhârata epic, the numerous Purânas (popular sacred encyclopedias), and a host of other works. This farfetched idea has some basis in reality, however, for the name Vyâsa means “Collector” and was presumably a title rather than a personal name, and was applied to many individuals over a long span of time. In actuality, we know as little about Vyâsa or the numerous Vyâsas as we do about Patanjali.

  According to one legend, Vyâsa was the son of the sage Parâshara and the nymph Satyavatî (also called Kâlî) whom Parâshara had seduced. In appreciation of her beauty and love, the sage not only restored her virginity by magical means but also relieved her of the fishy smell that she had inherited from her mother. Vyâsa was brought up in secret on an island (dvîpa); hence, his epithet Dvaipâyana (“Island-born”). Because he bore the name Krishna as a child, he also came to be known as Krishna Dvaipâyana.

  Sometime later, Satyavatî’s beauty caught the eye of the aged king Shântanu, who promptly fell in love with her. He asked for Satyavatî’s hand, which her father granted on the condition that it must be her children who would succeed to the throne, not the remaining child from the king’s first marriage. Shântanu agreed after his grown son Bhîshma, whose heroic exploits are told in the Mahâbârata, renounced his hereditary rights. The couple lived happily for almost twenty years and had two sons. After Shântanu’s death the first-born duly ascended the throne but died during a military adventure. Then his brother, who was married to two women, was crowned. Alas, his rule was also short-lived, for he soon
died of consumption. Custom demanded that since he had left no offspring the nearest male relative should sire a child with either of the two widows. Bhîshma was disqualified because he had sworn never to have children.

  Satyavatî called Vyâsa to the court to perform this noble duty. The two ladies, Ambikâ and Ambâlikâ, had expected the stately Bhîshma to do the honors. They were shocked when the less-than-handsome Vyâsa, in the scant attire of a hermit, visited their chambers. Vyâsa made love first to one widow, then the other. In this way he fathered the blind Dhritarâshtra and the pale Pându. On that evening Vyâsa also sired a third child—by a maid who acted as a substitute when he wanted to repeat his duty with one of the widows. Dhritarâshtra was born blind because his mother, Ambikâ, had closed her eyes in shock upon sight of Vyâsa, whereas Pându was born pale because all blood had drained from his mother Ambâlikâ’s face when Vyâsa approached her. The sage, then, is the source of the great war reported in the Mahâbhârata, which was fought by the sons of Dhritarâshtra and Pându respectively. We can see in this an ingenious literary device by which the creator of the Mahâbhârata epic inserted himself into the story, or we can assume that it may contain a kernel of historical truth.

  Whoever the author of the Yoga-Bhâshya may have been, this Sanskrit work contains the key to many of the more enigmatic aphorisms of Patanjali’s scripture. We have to use it with caution, however, since several centuries separate the two Yoga authorities. Even though Vyâsa was in all likelihood a yogin of considerable attainment—because he writes with great authority about rather esoteric matters—he does not appear to have been in the direct lineage of Patanjali, as some of his interpretations and terminology are at variance with the Yoga-Sûtra.

  Other Commentaries

  From the eighth century C.E. we have the Jaina scholar Haribhadra Sûri’s Shad-Darshana-Samuccaya (“Compilation of the Six Systems [of Philosophy]”), which includes a chapter on Patanjali’s Yoga. However, strictly speaking, this is not a commentary.