The Yoga Tradition

by Georg Feuerstein

  “Krishna, [who is called] Govinda,

  is the supreme Lord (îshvara), the embodiment

  of Being, Consciousness, and Bliss,

  without beginning and end, cause of all causes.”

  —Brahma-Samhitâ (5.1)

  I. GOD IS LOVE

  When the heart is open it tends to burst into song and poetry. The ecstatic literature of the Shiva worshipers, especially of the southern part of the Indian peninsula, is a lasting testimony to this fact. And so is the great devotional literature of the Vishnu community to which we will now turn.

  The five hymns dedicated to God Vishnu in the Rig-Veda were early blossoms on the Vaishnava tree of wisdom. Many centuries went by before the next great work of Vaishnavism saw the light of day. This was the Bhagavad-Gîtâ (“Song of the Lord”), the most popular of all Yoga works. Composed in its present version some 2,500 years ago, it inspired later generations of mystics to compose such incomparable devotional works as the poetry of the lvârs and Bauls, the Bhâgavata-Purâna, and the Gîtâ-Govinda, all of which will be introduced shortly. The Bhagavad-Gîtâ even served other poets as a model for similar didactic songs. Thus there is, for instance, an Anu-Gîtâ (a recapitulation of the Bhagavad-Gîtâ found in the Mahâbhârata itself), an Uddhâva-Gîtâ (embedded in the Bhâgavata-Purâna), a Ganesha-Gîtâ (in honor of the elephant-headed deity Ganesha), and a Râma-Gîtâ (in honor of Râma, an incarnation of Vishnu). Nearly one hundred other Gîtâs are known, at least by name, though most of them are portions of other works.

  The sacred literature of the Vaishnava community is as vast and complex as that of the Shaiva community, which I have touched on in the previous chapter. The early post-Christian centuries saw the creation of the Samhitâs (“Collections”), which are the Vaishnava equivalent to the Shaiva gamas and the Tantras of the Shakti worshipers.1 Tradition speaks of 108 Samhitâs, though more than two hundred works of this genre are known. They belong to the Pâncarâtra branch of Vaishnavism, which is mentioned already in the Mahâbhârata.

  The oldest Samhitâs appear to be the Sâtvata (apparently referred to in the Mahâ-Bhârata), Paushkâra, Varâha, Brahma, and Padma. Other important texts of this genre are the Ahirbudhnya and the Jayâkhya. Like their Shaiva counterparts, the Samhitâs in principle organize their material into four sections, which are respectively known as jnâna-pâda (dealing with wisdom teachings or metaphysics), yoga-pâda (introducing yogic techniques), kriyâ-pâda (concerned with the building of temples and creation of sacred images), and caryâ-pâda (dealing with religious or ritual practices).

  The anonymous composers of these scriptures were all familiar with Yoga practice, and their understanding of what this entails is roughly similar. The emphasis of their teachings is not so much on achieving mystical states of inwardness as on ritual worship and a moral way of life, interspersed with philosophical considerations, yet the declared ultimate goal is union with the Divine in the form of Vishnu (in the form of Nârâyâna, Vâsudeva, etc.)

  The Vishnu-Samhitâ (chapter 13), which is typical of this genre of sacred literature, introduces a sixfold Yoga (shad-anga-yoga), which it styles bhâgavata- yoga. But many other works of the Vaishnava canon recommend Patanjali’s eightfold Yoga. This is true of the Ahirbudhnya-Samhitâ, for instance, whose author clearly was aware of the Yoga-Sûtra. The text (31.15), however, defines Yoga in consonance with medieval Vedânta as “the union of the individual self with the transcendental Self.” This work also mentions a variety of Yoga postures (including kûrma-, mayûra-, kukkuta-, and go-mukha-âsana) and recommends their practice for maintaining good health. The emphasis, however, is on the spiritual aspect of Yoga, without which none of these practices would be of lasting benefit.

  II. THE LVRS

  In contrast to the Pancarâtra Samhitâs, which are primarily theological and ritual works, the lvârs (“Deep-diving ones”), who flourished in the eighth and ninth centuries C.E., created a body of inspirational poetry, some of which is still sung in South India. The lvârs are a group of twelve adepts of Bhakti-Yoga, whose compositions are gathered in the Nâlâyira- Tivyap-Pirapantam (Sanskrit: Nâlâyira-Divya-Prabandha), which is given the same respect as the sacred Vedas of the brahmins. Their poems sparkle with passionate love for the Divine, and their archetypal symbolism touches us deeply even in translation. Most of the four thousand poems, or hymns, in this collection were composed by Tiruman- kai and Namm lvâr. The latter is the most popular of these saints, and his Tiruvâymoli (included in the Pirapantam) is given a status comparable to that of the Sâma-Veda. Namm Alvar is said to have been born absorbed in yogic ecstasy and to have crawled into a hollow tree trunk, where he remained in ecstatic absorption (samâdhi) for sixteen years until the man who was destined to become his chief disciple arrived. In his Tiruvâymoli (1.1.1) he declared:

  “Who is He who is the

  highest good

  diminishing all other

  heights?

  Who is He who bestows

  wisdom and love

  dispelling ignorance?

  Who is He who rules the

  immortals beyond

  sorrow?

  Worship His radiant feet that

  end all sorrow.”

  The lvârs were steeped in Krishna mythology: Krishna, the youthful cowherd, a full incarnation of the Divine Vishnu, at play with the cowgirls, the gopîs.

  In the spiritual experiences of these lvârs we find a passionate yearning after God, the Lord and Lover … the emphasis is mostly on the transcendent beauty and charm of God, and on the ardent longings of the devotee who plays the part of a female lover, for Krishna, the God … The rapturous passions are like a whirlpool that eddies through the very eternity of the individual soul, and expresses itself sometimes in the pangs of separation and sometimes in the exhilaration of union.

  The Alvar, in his ecstatic delight, visualizes God everywhere, and in the very profundity of his attainment pines for more. He also experiences states of supreme intoxication, when he becomes semi-conscious, or unconscious with occasional breaks into the consciousness of yearning … The lvârs were probably the pioneers in showing how love for God may be on terms of tender equality, softening down to the rapturous emotion of conjugal love.2

  The twelve holy lvârs included only a single woman mystic, ntâl, who lived soon after 800 C.E. ntâl (“She of fragrant tresses”), who worshiped God Vishnu primarily in the form of the beautiful Krishna, authored two works. The first is the popular Tiruppâvai (“Sacred Vow”), consisting of only thirty Tamil verses, which are still sung by young women wishing for a happy marriage. The second work, written after the Tiruppâvai, is the Nâcciyâr-Tirumoli (“Sacred Song of the Lady”), consisting of fourteen hymns with a total of 143 verses, of which only the sixth hymn is widely known. The latter work extols the path of the unmarried saint, and it is rich in the beautiful imagery of bridal mysticism. Here ntâl expresses her pining for Krishna, who melts her soul and tortures her heart with yearning until he graces her with a glimpse of his lovely face. She describes herself growing pale and losing weight—a maiden desperately in love, resdess with longing, who has lost all sense of shame and proportion over her lover. In one hymn, ntâl speaks of having her dream fulfilled: She beheld Krishna’s radiant face glowing like the rising sun. In the same hymn, this great bhakti-yoginî promises that those who meditate on her verses will cure their heart’s pain and find eternal peace at the feet of the Lord.

  The experience of separation (viraha) from the Divine is among the devotee’s most vauable allies, for it deepens devotion. This is captured nowhere more powerfully than in the traditional figure of Râdhâ and the other cowgirls of Vrindâvâna, whose love for Lord Krishna was boundless.

  III. THE BHGAVATA-PURNA

  The theme of erotic spirituality is fully explored, if not exploited, in the Bhâgavata-Purâna, also known as the Shrîmad-Bhâgavata, which depicts the God-man Krishna as husband to 16,108 women, each of whom bore him ten sons and one daughte
r. The Bhâgavata- Purâna is a magnificent tenth-century work that has been called “the richest treasure hidden in the bosom of the liberated, the incomparable solace to the disturbed soul.”3 No other scripture, with the exception of the Bhagavad-Gîtâ, has enjoyed such widespread popularity through the centuries. Numerous commentaries have been written on this work, which holds aloft the great ideal of love-devotion (bhakti) to the Lord (bhagavat).

  Central to the Bhâgavata-Purâna’s gospel of devotion to the Divine is the rich metaphor of the râsa-lîlâ-the playful dance of beauteous love. One night, the lovesick gopîs stole away from their homes in the village to be with their beloved Krishna. Seeking to kindle their passionate longing for him, he played his magical flute, whose unearthly sounds held them spellbound.

  At the climax of Krishna’s love play with the maidens, he danced a dance of ecstatic abandon with them, giving each girl the impression that he was dancing with her alone. So all-consuming was their passion for him that they were completely oblivious of the other girls-a perfect metaphor for the psyche absorbed in devotion to the Lord.

  The idea of the râsa-lîlâ can be traced back to Chapter 63 of the Hari-Vamsha (“Hari’s lineage”), which is an appendix of 18,000 stanzas to the Mahâbhârata. This appendix is generally dated to the first few centuries C.E.

  Yoga is mentioned in many passages of the Bhâgavata-Purâna. In one such place (11.20.6), three approaches are distinguished, namely the path of wisdom for those who are weary of rituals, the path of action for those who are still inclined toward worldly and sacred activity, and the path of devotion for those who are fortunate enough to be neither weary of actions nor overly inclined to them, but simply have faith in the Lord and his power of salvation. The Bhâgavata-Purâna accepts Patanjali’s eightfold path but rejects his dualist philosophy. Also, the eight limbs of the yogic path are defined somewhat differently from the Yoga-Sûtra. This is most apparent in the delineation of the constituent practices of moral discipline (yama) and self-restraint (niyama). Where Patanjali lists five practices for each set, the Bhâgavata-Purâna (11.19.33ff.) has twelve. But always it is devotion that is recommended as the supreme means of reaching liberation. The adept Kapila, who is remembered as the founder of the Sâmkhya tradition and is identified with God Vishnu, is credited with these pertinent words:

  When the mind is firmly fixed on Me by intense Bhakti-Yoga, it becomes still and steady. This is the only way for attaining the highest bliss in this world. (3.25.44)

  On the path of devotion, concentration is always the fixing of attention upon the divine Person, whereas meditation is the contemplation of the Lord’s form, as depicted in iconography: with a four-armed, garlanded dark-blue body; a serene expression on his kind face; holding a conch, a disc, and a mace in his hands; wearing a crown on his head and the magical kaustubha jewel around his neck; and bearing the shrî-vatsa (“blessed calf’) mark on his chest. The dark-blue hue of Krishna’s body is the result of his drinking the poisoned milk of the female demon Pûtanâ who suckled him. The implements in his hands are all instruments of war, and their use destroys the enemy—the ego—and leads to liberation. The magical jewel was created during the churning of the world ocean at the beginning of time. The mark on Krishna’s chest is one of the signs of his superior birth and of his principal vocation as a cowherd (gopa), a protector of cattle and of human souls.

  Liberation is thought to be of different degrees, depending on the devotee’s level of proximity to, or identification with, the Lord. At the lowest stage, the devotee dwells in the divine location— Vaikuntha Heaven—in the Lord’s company. This is called sâlokya-mukti. When the devotee’s power and glory equals that of the Lord, it is known as1 sârishti-mukti. When he or she is abiding in close proximity to the Lord, it is called sâmîpya-mukti. The penultimate level of liberation is sârûpya-mukti, in which the devotee attains perfect conformity with the Lord. Finally, there is ekatva-mukti, or the “liberation of singleness,” in which the last trace of difference between the devotee and the Divine is lifted.

  Of particular interest for the Yoga student are Chapters 6-29 of the eleventh book of the Bhâgavata- Purâna. This section is known as the Uddhâva-Gîtâ, after the sage Uddhâva, to whom the God-man Krishna expounds the Yoga of devotion. This “Song,” which is sometimes referred to as Krishna’s last message, praises love-devotion above all other means:

  Just as fire that is ablaze with flames reduces wood to ashes, so devotion to Me removes all sin, O Uddhâva. (11.14.19)

  Neither through [conventional] Yoga nor Sâmkhya, nor righteousness (dharma), nor study, nor austerities, nor renunciation (tyâga) does he reach Me as [readily as he does through] devotion (bhakti), or the worship of Me. (11.14.20)

  I, the beloved Self of the virtuous, am realized through singular devotion, through faith. Devotion established in Me purifies even [outcastes] like the “dog-cookers” (shva-paka) from their [lowly and impure] birth. (11.14.21)

  The devotee of Krishna is portrayed as an individual capable of deep emotion, worship, and renunciation as follows:

  He whose speech is interrupted by sobs, whose heart (citta) melts, who unabashedly sometimes laments or laughs, or sings aloud or dances—[such a person] endowed with devotion to Me purifies the world. (11.14.24)

  Faith in the nectar-like stories about Me, constant proclamation of My [greatness], deep reverence (parinishthâ) in worshiping [Me], and praising Me with hymns; (11.19.20)

  delight in service [to Me], making prostrations [before Me], rendering greater worship to My devotees, and considering all beings as Me; (11.19.21)

  doing bodily activities for My sake, reciting My qualities in sayings, offering the mind to Me, and banishing all desires; (11.19.22) renouncing things, pleasure, and enjoyment for My sake, [undertaking] whatever sacrifice, gifting, oblation, recitation, vow, and penance for My sake— (11.19.23)

  by such virtues, O Uddhâva, self-surrendered people acquire love-devotion (bhakti) for Me. What other task remains for such a one? (11.19.24)

  SOURCE READING 14

  Uddhâva-Gîtâ (Selection)

  The following is a translation of Chapter 13 of the Uddhâva-Gîtâ, which speaks of the householder who has retired to the forest in order to pursue his quest for the Divine. The description of the hermit’s life drives home the single-mindedness with which the serious practitioner must cultivate the yogic path.

  The Blessed Lord said:

  He who wishes to withdraw into the forest should live peacefully in the forest in the third quarter of his life, entrusting his wife to his sons or [taking her] with him. (1)

  He should subsist on bulbs, roots, fruits, and wild plants and wear bark, cloth, grass, leaves, or a hide. (2)

  He should let his hair, body hair, nails, and beard grow dirty and not clean his teeth. Three times [a day, at sunrise, noon, and sunset,] he should immerse himself in water and sleep on the ground. (3)

  In the summer he should practice austerity with the five fires [i.e., four fires around him and the sun overhead]. During the rains he should expose himself to the downpours. In winter he should immerse himself up to his neck in water. In this fashion he should practice penance (tapas). (4)

  He should eat [food] cooked over a fire or [food that has] ripened over time, crushing it with a rock in a mortar, or even with the teeth as a mortar. (5)

  Understanding the power of the [right] place and time, he should gather all means of subsistence himself, and he should not eat [food] offered by others or what has been discarded. (6)

  The forest-dweller should worship Me [Krishna] with pleasing sacrificial cakes from wild plants, not with animal [sacrifices prescribed] by the scriptures. (7)

  The expounders [of the sacred tradition) prescribe lor the sage (muni) the four-month (disciplines], and the [daily] fire ritual, as well as the new-moon and the full-moon [observances] as previously [mentioned]. (8)

  By thus performing asceticism (tapas), the sage who is steady in his duty (dharma) and w
orships Me by asceticism reaches Me from the world of the seers (rishi-loka). (9)

  But what greater fool is there than he who undertakes this great, unexcelled asceticism practiced with [immense] difficulty for [the sake of realizing] insignificant desires? (10)

  When he is unable to [follow these] rules because of congenital tremors from old age. he should project [i.e., visualize] the [sacred] fires within himself, and with his mind intent on Me, he should enter the fire [of the Spirit]. (11)

  When he is running out of time in the worlds [driven by] action (karma) and its fruition, he should adopt dispassion (virâga), and having completely abandoned the fire [rituals], he should go forth [as a renouncer]. (12)

  Sacrificing to Me according to the injunctions and giving all that is his to the [officiating] priests, as well as placing his own life-breath (prâna) into the fires, he should go forth [feeling) carefree. (13)

  For the sage (vipra) intent on renunciation, the Gods, [fearing] that he may really transcend them and reach the Supreme, create obstacles in the form of his wife and other [loved ones]. (14)

  If the sage wants to retain a [second] piece of cloth, it should be no larger than the loincloth (kaupîna). Having abandoned [everything], he should have nothing but his staff and bowl, except [during times of] distress. (15)

  He should place his foot after purifying [the ground] with his gaze and drink water purified with a cloth. He should utter words purified by truth and conduct [his life] with a purified mind. (16)

  Silence (mauna), inactivity, and breath control (anila-âyâma)4 are the restraints of speech, body, and mind. He who does not have these, O friend, cannot become an ascetic (yati) by [carrying around] a staff. (17)

  He should go to the four estates (varna) for alms, except to the sinful. He should go to seven houses unannounced and should be content with whatever is given. (18)