The Yoga Tradition

by Georg Feuerstein

  7. See P. Sinha, The Gîtâ as It Was: Rediscovering the Original Bhagavadgîtâ (La Salle, 111.: Open Court, 1987).

  8. See K. N. Upadhyâya, Early Buddhism and the Bhagavadgîtâ (Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass, 1971).

  9. M. K. Gandhi, Young India (Delhi, 1925), pp. 1078-1079. The immense popularity of the Gîtâ is reflected in the numerous commentaries on it that have been composed in Sanskrit and the vernacular languages. The oldest available and most authoritative commentary is by Shankara, the leading proponent of Hindu non-dualism. Other well-known expositions of the Gîtâ’s teachings are by Râmânuja, the famous teacher of qualified nondualism, by the dualist Madhva, who composed the Gîtâ-Bhâshya and the Gîtâ-Tatparya, and by the celebrated adept-poet Jnânadeva, whose Jnâneshvarî must be counted among the most beautiful poetic creations of India. In modern times, illuminating commentaries were composed by the Bengali philosopher-yogm Sri Aurobindo and the philosopher and sometime-president of India Sarvepalli Râdhâkrishnân.

  10. J. W. Hauer in Hibbert Journal (April 1940), p. 341.

  11. Swami Prabhavânanda and C. Isherwood, The Song of God: Bhagavad-Gîtâ (London: Phoenix House, 1947), p. 18.

  12. The epithet Dhanamjaya means “Conqueror of wealth,” from dhana (“wealth”) and jaya (“conquest”). “Wealth” here stands both for the kingdom over which the Bhârata war was fought and spiritual riches.

  13. G. Feuerstein, The Bhagavad-Gîtâ: Its Philosophy and Cultural Setting (Wheaton, 111.: Quest Books, 1983), p. 162.

  14. The deities mentioned in this stanza all stem from the Vedic era.

  15. The word anjali signifies the gesture of folded hands raised to the heart or forehead.

  16. The Rudras, etc., are Vedic deities.

  17. The epithet Savyasäcin means “He who is skilled with the left hand,” that is, “He who is ambidexterous.”

  18. The Rakshâsas are demonic beings.

  19. The deities named hail from the Vedic era. Shashänka (“Hare-marked”) is one of the names of the lunar deity.

  20. The epithet Janàrdana means “Harasser of people” and is equivalent to the English word “hero.”

  21. The epithet Paramtapa means “He who vexes the enemy” and is a synonym of Janârdana.

  22. Written bhûtätman. This concept stands for the Self as residing in the bhûtas, that is the finite “beings” and material “elements.” This expression can also be found in the Maiträyantya-Upanishad (3.2f.).

  23. The three gunas—sattva, rajas, and tamas—are the fundamental qualities or forces of Nature (prakriti), which underlie not only the material universe (and thus the human body, including the senses) but also the mind and mental phenomena.

  24. Written akritätman.

  25. Written Maiträyaniyopanishad.

  26. As the German Yoga researcher Jakob Wilhelm Hauer observed, Paul Deussen’s notion that the Maiträyantya-Upanishad contains deliberate archaisms is unproven. See J. W. Hauer, Der Yoga (Stuttgart: Kohlhammer Verlag, 1958), p. 100, where he assigns this text to the early Buddhist era. On the basis of this Upanishad’s grammatical peculiarities, Max Müller placed it prior to the grammarian Pânini, who is usually assigned to the fifth century B.C.E. or somewhat later. See M. Miiller, Sacred Books of the East, vol. 15 (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1900), p. 6. See J. A. B. van Buitenen, The Maitràyantya Upanisad (‘s-Gravenhage: Mouton de Gruyter, 1962).

  27. For a translation of the Maitreya-Upanishad, see P. Olivelle, Samnyäsa Upanisads: Hindu Scriptures on Asceticism and Renunciation (New York and Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1992), pp. 158-169.

  28. Some scholars regard the Mändûkya-Upanishad (written Mändûkyopanishad) as a fairly recent creation that may have been authored by Gaudapäda himself. But there is no good reason for this assumption.

  29. The complete mantra runs: Om bhûr bhuvah svah tat savitur varenyam bhargo devasya dhîmahi dhiyo yo nah procodayäd àpo jyoti- raso’mritam. The recitation of this mantric utterance while retaining the breath is reckoned as one retention (kumbhaka).

  PART THREE: CLASSICAL YOGA

  Chapter 9: The History and Literature of Pätanjala-Yoga

  1. C. Chappie and Yogi nanda Virâj (E. P. Kelly, Jr.), The Yoga Sûtras ofPatanjali: An Analysis of the Sanskrit with Accompanying English Translation (Delhi: Sri Satguru Publications, 1990), p. 15.

  2. See S. N. Tandon, A Re-Appraisal of Patanjali’s Yoga-Sûtras in the Light of the Buddha’s Teaching (Igatpuri, India: Vipassana Research Institute, 1995).

  3. For a scholarly discussion of the relationship between Patanjali the Yoga adept and the grammarian, see S. Dâsgupta, A History of Indian Philosophy (Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass, 1975), vol. 1, p. 230-233. See also J. H. Woods, The Yoga-System ofPatanjali (Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass, 3d ed. 1966), pp. xiii-xvii.

  4. See A. Weber, The History of Indian Literature (London: Kegan Paul, Trench, Triibner & Co., 4th ed., 1904), p. 223n. Weber also mentions that Patanjali is sometimes said to have been one of the Buddha’s former incarnations.

  5. S. Dâsgupta, A History of Indian Philosophy (Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass, 1975), vol. 1, p. 62.

  6. See G. Feuerstein, The Yoga-Sûtra: An Exercise in the Methodology of Textual Analysis (New Delhi: Amold-Heinemann, 1979).

  7. In discussing the date of the Yoga-Bhäshya, J. H. Woods, op. cit., p. xxi, pointed out a reference to this text in Mägha’s Shishupälavadha (4.55), which would fix the upper limit for the Bhäshya’s composition. He then, however, commits the error of stating that “the Comment cannot be earlier than a.d. 650,” whereas he should have written “cannot be later than.” Falling prey to his own misstatement, Woods then reaches the conclusion, “Accordingly the date of the Bhäsya would be somewhere between about a.d. 650 and about A.D. 850,” which is patently wrong. Scholars continue to be misled by this pronouncement.

  8. T. Leggett, The Complete Commentary by Śankara on the Yoga Sûtras: A Full Translation of the Newly Discovered Text (London and New York: Kegan Paul International, 1990), p. 39. See also P. Hacker, “Śankara the Yogin und Śankara der Advaitin: Einige Beobachtungen,” Beiträge zur Geistesgeschichte Indiens: Festschrift fûr E. Frauwallner (Vienna, 1968), pp. 119-148.

  9. T. S. Rukmani, “The Problem of the Authorship of the Yogasùtrabhàsyavivaranam,” Journal of Indian Philosophy, vol. 20 (1992), p. 422.

  10. Written Sûträrthabodhini.

  11. U. Arya, Yoga-Sûtras of Patanjali, vol. 1 : Samädhi-Päda (Honesdale, Penn.: Himalayan International Institute, 1986), p. 10. This work by Pandit Usharbudh Arya (now Swami Vedabharati) is the single most in-depth commentary on Patanjali’s work, but unfortunately only the author’s exegesis of the first chapter of the Yoga-Sûtra has thus far been published.

  12. M. Miiller, The Six Systems of Indian Philosophy (London: Longmans, Green and Co., repr. 1916), p. 450.

  13. T. S. Rukmani, Yogavärttika ofVijnänabhiksu, vol. 1: Samàdhipàda (New Delhi: Munshiram Manoharlal, 1981), p. 5.

  14. Written Paingalopanishad.

  Chapter 10: The Philosophy and Practice of Pâtanjala-Yoga

  1. A. Govinda, The Psychological Attitude in Early Buddhist Philosophy (London: Rider, 1969), p. 35.

  2. Swami Ajaya, Yoga Psychology: A Practical Guide to Meditation (Honesdale, Penn.: Himalayan International Institute, 1978), p. 73.

  3. G. Krishna, The Dawn of a Science (New Delhi: Kundalînî Research and Publication Trust, 1978), p. 223.

  4. See C. Tart, Waking Up: Overcoming the Obstacles to Human Potential (Boston, Mass.: New Science Library, 1987).

  5. J. H. Clark, A Map of Mental States (London: Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1983), p. 29.

  6. See H. Jacobs, Western Psycho-Therapy and Hindu Sâdhana: A Contribution to Comparative Studies in Psychology and Metaphysics (London: George Allen & Unwin, 1961), for a trenchant critique of C. G. Jung’s position.

  7. M. Eliade, Yoga: Immortality and Freedom (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1970), p. 39.

  8. The British
Yoga researcher Ian Whicher, however, has suggested that we ought to understand Patanjali’s dualism not in ontological but merely in epistemological terms. If correct, this would permit us to associate the ideal of living liberation with Classical Yoga. See I. Whicher, “Implications for an Embodied Freedom in Patanjali’s Yoga,” a paper presented at the Conference on Yoga held at Loyola Marymount University in Los Angeles, California, March 15, 1997. See also C. Chappie, “The Unseen Seer and the Field: Consciousness in Sâmkhya and Yoga,” in R. K. C. Forman, ed., The Problem of Pure Consciousness: Mysticism and Philosophy (New York and Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1990), pp. 53-70, and C. Chappie, “Citta-vrtti and Reality in the Yoga Sûtra,” in C. Chappie, ed., Sâmkhya-Yoga: Proceedings of the IASWR [Institute for Advanced Studies of World Religions] Conference, 1981, p. 112, where he characterizes my position in the woTds “the only good sage is a dead one.” While I continue to lean toward an ontological (dualist) interpretation of Patanjali’s metaphysics, I would like to modify Chappie’s paraphrase of my position to read “only a dead sage is perfect.” Goodness does not enter the equation, because Patanjali clearly states that the fully realized yogin transcends the categories of good and evil.

  PART FOUR: POST-CLASSICAL YOGA

  1. Written Shivastotravali.

  Chapter 11: The Nondualist Approach to God Among the Shiva Worshipers

  1. Translated by C. R. Bâîlly in her book Shaiva Devotional Songs of Kashmir: A Translation and Study of Utpaladeva’s Shivastotravali (New York: SUNY Press, 1987), p. 18.

  2. See D. Hartsuiker, Sadhûs: India’s Mystic Holy Men (Rochester, Vt.: Inner Traditions International, 1993).

  3. Written Pancarthabhâshya.

  4. This type of Yoga is to be distinguished from the Pâshupata Yoga schools mentioned in the Purânas, which follow Patanjali’s definition: “Yoga is the restriction of the fluctuations of consciousness.” Kaundinya, for instance, explicitly rejects the dualist metaphysics and methodology of both Sâmkhya and Patanjali’s Yoga. He emphasizes that liberation is not so much dissociation from everything but association with the Divine.

  5. The name Kâlâmukha is derived from kalâ (“time”) and amukha (“facing”).

  6. Robert E. Svoboda, Aghora: At the Left Hand of God (Albuquerque, N. M.: Brotherhood of Life, 1986), p. 36.

  7. Ibid., p. 22.

  8. The translation is by A. K. Râmânujan, Speaking of Siva (Harmondsworth, England: Penguin Books, 1973), p. 28. The spelling of words has been slightly amended.

  9. Upagama is derived from upa (“secondary”) and agama. For a discussion of the gamic literature, see M. S. G. Dyczkowski, The Canon of the Saivagama and the Kubjikâ Tantras of the Western Kaula Tradition (Albany, N.Y.: SUNY Press, 1988).

  10. The names of Shiva’s five faces, which are first mentioned in the Mahâ-Ndrayana-Upanishad (written Mahanarayanopanishad), are associated with mantras that must be pronounced in a low voice.

  11. Written Tantrâloka.

  12. Paraphrase of a rendering by K. C. Pandey, Abhinavagupta: An Historical and Philosophical Study (Varanasi, India: Chaukhamba Amarabharati Prâkâshan, 1963), p. 21.

  13. Kalâ is a very important term in Shaivism, Shaktism, and Tantrism. It often refers to the sixteen phases of the moon, the sixteenth being deemed most auspicious.

  14. The words kalâ and kalâ both derive from the verbal root kal meaning “to impel.”

  15. For a treatment of the twenty-four principles (tattva) of the Sâmkhya tradition, see Chapter 3.

  16. See J. C. Pearce, The Bond of Power (New York: Dutton, 1981), pp. 30-31.

  17. Technical terms in this section may be in Sanskrit or Tamil.

  18. Translated by V. Dehejia, Slaves of the Lord: The Path of the Tamil Saints (New Delhi: Munshiram Manoharlal, 1988), p. 35.

  19. Translated by G. E. Yocum, Hymns to the Dancing Siva (New Delhi, 1982), p. 180.

  Chapter 12: The Vendantic Approach to God Among the Vishnu Worshipers

  1. For an overview of the Pâncarâtra tradition’s Samhitâs, see F. O. Schrader, Introduction to the Pâncarâtra and the Ahirbudhnya Samhitâ (Adyar, India: Adyar Library, 1916). Noteworthy among these sacred Vaishnava scriptures are the Ahirbudhnya-, Jayâkhya-, Vishnu-, Parama-, and Paushkâra-Samhitâ, which are all untranslated. Useful discussions of their contents, however, are found in S. Dâsgupta, A History of Indian Philosophy, vol. 3 (Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass, repr. 1975).

  2. S. Dâsgupta, op. cit., vol. 3, pp. 83-84.1 have modified the spelling of Sanskrit and Tamil words to make them consistent with the simplified transliteration adopted for this volume.

  3. J. M. Sanyal, The Srimad-Bhagvatam of Krishna-Dwaipayana Vyâsa (New Delhi: Munshiram Manoharlal, 1973), p. vi (publisher’s note).

  4. Written anilayama.

  5. See T. K. V. Desikachar, The Heart of Yoga: Developing a Personal Practice (Rochester, Vt.: Inner Traditions International, 1995).

  6. Sri Anirvan and L. Reymond, To Live Within: Teachings of a Baul (High Burton, England: Coombe Springs Press, 1984), p. 252.

  7. See L. Lozowick, Hohm Saha] Mandir Study Manual: A Handbook for Practitioners of Every Spiritual and/or Transformational Path (Prescott, Ariz.: Hohm Press, 1996), 2 vols.

  Chapter 13: Yoga and Yogins in the Purânas

  1. Written vamshanucarita.

  2. Written baddhapadmâsana.

  3. These are the different forms of the life force in the body, which are briefly explained in Chapter 17.

  Chapter 14: The Yogic Idealism of the Yoga-Vâsishtha

  1. The name of the sage has two sh sounds, whereas Vâlmîki’s work is correctly spelled Vâsishtha.

  2. In Woods of God-Realization: The Complete Works ofSwami Râma Tîrtha (Lucknow, India: Râma Tîrtha Pratisthan, 9th ed., 1979), vol. 3, p. 295.

  3. The phrase “triple universe” refers to the material dimension, the intermediate psychic dimension, and the higher/subtle realms of Nature (prakriti).

  4. This seven-stage model is one of three different versions found in the Yoga-Vâsishtha.

  5. The Sanskrit original has koti-koti-amsha, “a ten-millionth of a ten-millionth fraction.”

  Chapter 15: God, Visions, and Power: The Yoga-Upanishads

  1. Written Tejobindupanishad.

  2. The Yoga-Upanishads (written Yogopanishads) are all available in relatively reliable translations published by the Theosophical Society of Adyar, India. Students of Yoga are greatly indebted to the Theosophical Society for making many Yoga scriptures available through their excellent publications program over the years. See T. R. S. Ayyangar, The Yoga Upanisads (Adyar, India: Adyar Library, 1952).

  3. J.-E. Berendt, Nâda Brahma: The World Is Sound—Music and the Landscape of Consciousness (Rochester, Vt.: Destiny Books, 1987), p. 76.

  4. S. S. Goswami, Layayoga: An Advanced Method of Concentration (London: Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1980), p. 13.

  5. Written Bindupanishads.

  6. See H. Nakamura, Shoki no Vedânta Tetsugaku, vol. 1 (Tokyo: Iwanami Shoten, 1951), pp. 63ff.

  7. Written Muktikopanishad.

  8. The practice of tarka probably refers to the careful evaluation of meditative states, lest the yogin should succumb to mere hallucinations.

  9. Written Hamsopanishad.

  10. Written Brahmavidyopanishad.

  11. Written Mahavakyopanishad.

  12. Written Pâshupatabrahmopanishad.

  13. J. M. Cohen and J.-F. Phibbs, The Common Experience (New York: St. Martin’s Press, 1979), p. 141.

  14. Written Advayatarakopanishad.

  15. Written paramâkâsha.

  16. Written mahâkâsha.

  17. Written tattvakdsha.

  18. Written suryakdsha.

  19. Written shodashanta. The number 16 is widely associated with the moon, whose sixteenth kalâ issues the nectar of immortality.

  20. The word unmani is composed of the prefix ud (“up”) and the verbal root man (“to think” or “to be conscious”). It signifies a
state of exhilaration or elation, that is, of being out of one’s mind, though in a positive sense. It is, however, closely related to unmada (“madness”).

  21. Written Kshurikopanishad.

  22. The term ucchvasa is composed of ud (“up”) and shvasa (“breath”), denoting exhalation.

  23. Written Yogakundalyupanishad. For euphonic reasons, the word kundali, or kundalinî, must be changed to kundaly, or kundaliny, when it is followed by a word beginning with a vowel, such as upanishad.

  24. Written Yogattvopanishad.

  25. Written Yogashikhopanishad.

  26. Written shivâlaya.

  27. Written Varahopanishad.

  28. Written Shandilyopanishad.

  29. Written Trishikhibrahmanopanishad.

  30. Written Darshanopanishad.

  31. Written Yogacûdâmanyupanishad. The word cuddmani (“crest-jewel”) is changed to cudamany for the reasons stated in note 23.

  Chapter 16: Yoga in Sikhism

  1. Translated by Swami Râma, Sukhamani Sahib: Fountain of Eternal Joy (Honesdale, Penn.: Himalayan International Institute, 1988), p. 162.

  2. Siri Singh Khalsa Yogiji, The Teaching of Yogi Bhajan: A Practical Demonstration of the Power of the Spoken Word (New York: Hawthorn Books, 1977), p. 172.

  3. Ibid., p. 184.

  4. Ibid., p. 4.

  PART FIVE: POWER AND TRANSCENDENCE IN TANTRA

  1. Written Devyupanishad.

  Chapter 17: The Esotericism of Medieval Tantra-Yoga

  1. Sometimes the terms agama and tantra are used interchangeably. The former term is explained as meaning “having come from [the mouth of God Shiva].”

  2. Written Mahacinâcârakrama.

  3. See G. Feuerstein, Tantra: The Path of Ecstasy (Boston, Mass.: Shambhala, 1998).

  4. A. Coomaraswamy, The Dance of Shiva: Fourteen Indian Essays (Bombay: Asia Publishing House, 1948), p. 140.

  5. According to C. G. Jung, there are two key archetypal forces in the human psyche, which he called anima and animus. The former is feminine, the latter masculine. Their balanced copresence in each of us, whether male or female, is responsible for psychic harmony.