The Yoga Tradition

by Georg Feuerstein

  2450 King Bhârata of the Pauravas, after whom India is named and to whose lineage belong the Pândavas.

  Alternative date of the Bhârata war suggested by the sixth-century astronomer Varâhamihira, which, however, seems much too early.

  2371-2316 Sargon, ruler of the city of Agade, whom the British scholar L. A. Waddell (erroneously) identified with King Sâgara. Sargon apparently had a permanent army of5,400 soldiers, which allowed him to conquer the neighboring city-states one after the other. The Akkadian kingdom in turn was conquered by the Babylonians, whose mathematics indicate the formative influence of the kind of mathematics expounded in the Shulba-Sûtras and which was essentially present already in the early Brâhmanas.

  2050 King Dâsharatha of Ayodhyâ, the father of Râma, Bhârata, Lakshmana, and Shatrughna. Dâsharatha is mentioned in a Hittite inscription dated c. 1400 B.C.E. together with Indra, the Nasatyas, and the Ashvins, showing that in the intervening two millennia the emperor had been thoroughly mythologized. Râma, said to have been born at the end of the treta-yuga (traditionally fixed to 867,000 B.C.E.), is the hero of the Râmâyana. This “original epic” (ad.i-ka.vya) was composed by Vâlmîki, supposedly a contemporary of Râma and teacher of the famous sage Bharadvâja, though the extant Sanskrit version is far more recent (possibly 300 B.C.E.). Râma’s reign was a golden age for the ancient kingdom of Ayodhyâ in the north of India. His wife Sîtâ was abducted by Râvana, the demonic ruler of Sri Lankâ (formerly Ceylon). With the help of the wise monkey-headed demigod Hamimat, he succeeded in rescuing Sîtâ, who embodies the principle of fidelity. The Vedic people are known to have been experienced seafarers, and crossing the ocean to the island of Sri Lankâ would not have been difficult for them.

  Sage Rishyashringa, son-in-law of Dâsharatha, who restored fertility to the emperor’s three wives.

  Sage Vâmadeva, friend of Vashishtha, who composed the hymns of the fourth mandala (“cycle”) of the Rig-Veda. The Râmâyana knows him as the priest of Dâsharatha.

  1970 King Sudas (or Sudasa), famous for the Battle of the Ten Kings mentioned in the Rig-Veda and for his patronage of the great sages Vashishtha and Vishvâmitra (composer of the hymns in the third mandala of the Rig-Veda). There have been many other Vashishthas and Vishvâmitras in earlier and later times.

  Sage Kavasha, who is mentioned in the Rig-Veda (7.18.12) as having drowned in the waters of the Parushni River.

  1900 At this point, the mighty Sârasvatî River, whose fertile banks were once the central home of the Indus-Sârasvatl civilization, no longer runs to the Arabian Sea but has virtually dried up. Today the Sârasvatî is only a small river, called Ghaggar. Since the Rig-Veda still remembers the Sârasvatî as an ocean-going river, many of its hymns must have been composed in the third millennium and perhaps earlier still.

  1590 Tura Kavasheya (1590 B.c.e.), a remote descendant of Sage Kavasha, who is mentioned in the Brihad-ranyaka- Upanishad (6.5.4) as the first guru of the teaching lineage behind this scripture.

  1550 The last hymns of the Rig-Veda were composed by Devapi (elder brother of King Shântanu, Bhîshma’s father), who renounced the world at an early age.

  1500-1200 This is usually considered to be the period of the (now refuted) invasion of the Sanskrit-speaking Indo-Aryan tribes from the Russian steppes. The strong evidence against this nineteenth-century assumption is discussed in the book In Search of the Cradle of Civilization by Georg Feuerstein, Subhash Kak, and David Frawley. The Indo-Europeans appear to have settled on the Indian subcontinent long before then and can be associated already with the town of Mehrgarh (see 6500 B.C.E.).

  1500-500 The “dark age” according to conventional historians such as Vincent A. Smith (The Oxford History of India)—a notion that is profoundly challenged by the available evidence gathered in the present chronology.

  1450 The five Pândava princes, sons of King Dhritarâshtra and cousins of the Kaurava princes—the two contending parties in the great Bhârata war.

  This is the approximate date of the submerged archaeological site of Dvârakâ in Gujarat, which has been identified by some archaeologists as the hometown of the God-man Krishna. Curiously, the date of 1450 B.C.E. coincides with a major natural catastrophe in the Mediterranean that annihilated the Minoan civilization.

  According to Purânic tradition, Kushâsthali was the name of the island on which King Revata (3250 B.C.E.), the great grandson of Manu Vaivasvata, built the first city, or the first fort, according to some accounts, in that area. After a short span of time, Revata’s city became submerged under the waters of the Gulf of Kutch in the Arabian Sea. Much later, Krishna built Dvârakâ, though his city met with the same fate, apparently shortly after the God-man’s death. If the identification of the underwater ruins as Dvârakâ is correct, we also have a date for the eighteen-day war chronicled in the Mahâbhârata. It was fought between the Kurus and the Pândavas and their respective allies. The great hero of the Pândavas was Prince Arjuna, the disciple of Krishna. Their dialogue just before the first battle was fought forms the Bhagavad-Gîtâ (“Lord’s Song”), which, however, is most likely a later creation (see 500 B.C.E.).

  Sage Vyâsa, who “arranges” the four Vedic Samhitâs— Rig-Veda, Sâma-Veda, Yajur-Veda, and Atharva-Veda—as well as composes the Jayâ (the original version of the Mahâbhârata) and collects the oldest Purâna or Purânas.

  Sage Uddhâva, minister and friend of Krishna to whom the Uddhâva-Gîtâ embedded in the Bhdgavata-Purâna is (wrongly) attributed.

  1410 King Parikshit II, Arjuna’s grandson, who had to confront the social chaos in the aftermath of the Bhârata war.

  1390 Sage Uddâlaka, teacher of the famous Yâjnavalkya Vajasaneya, who had fifteen main disciples, including his own son Shvetaketu (whose instruction is recorded in the Chândogya-Upanishad), Khagodara (father of Ashtâvakra), Asuri (who might be the same as the disciple of the sage Kapila mentioned in the Mahâbhârata), and the fabulously wealthy King Janaka of Videha. Yâjnavalkya’s teachings are recorded in the Shata-Patha-Brâhmana, and some of them are also preserved in the Brihad-ranyaka-Upanishad.

  Tittiri (a great authority on the Yajur-Veda) and Pippalada, compiler of the Atharva-Veda and teacher of Ashvâlayana, composer of the Rig-Veda-Pratishakya.

  Shaunaka, a great priestly authority and a teacher of Ashvâlayana.

  1370 King Janamejaya III of the Kuru-Pauravas, son of Parikshit II, who is remembered for having sponsored a large-scale horse sacrifice (ashva-medha).

  1350 Sage Ashtâvakra, who is mentioned in the Mahâbhârata and who is also (wrongly) credited with the authorship of the Ashtâvakra-Gîtâ, a work on Vedânta.

  This is also the approximate date of the core of astronomer Lagadha’s Vedanga-Jyotisha, as suggested by astronomical data given in the text itself. This work was subsequently modified through additions and rewriting.

  1290 Pancashikha, a disciple of Sage Asuri, who may be the same as the early authority on Sâmkhya. If so, this would also be the era of Kapila, the reputed founder of the Sâmkhya tradition.

  1270 Yaska, author of the Nirukta, a commentary on the Vedas.

  1000-900 Beginning of the so-called “second urbanization” along the Ganges (Gangâ) River. Also, probable beginning of Vaishnavism (centered on the worship of the Divine in the form of Vishnu).

  800 Pârshva, the predecessor of Vardhâmana Mahâvîra (see 599- 527 B.C.E.)

  800 -600 Possible date of the Shvetâshvatara-Upanishad, which is a Shaiva scripture introducing the ideal of devotion (bhakti), and the Kathâ-Upanishad, which defines Yoga as the “holding of the senses.” These two texts are usually placed around 500-300 B.C.E.

  599 -527 Vardhâmana Mahâvîra, founder of historical Jainism, who is said to be the twenty-fourth “ford-maker” (tîrthankara). Like Hinduism and Buddhism, Jainism is concerned with the spiritual liberation of the individual. The works of earlier teachers of Jainism, the Pûrvas, have been lost.

  570 Pautimashiputra, the last authority mentioned in
the teaching lineage of the Brihad-ranyaka-Upanishad, the oldest of the extant Upanishads (spanning over fifty teacher generations amounting to c. 1000 years).

  563-483 Siddhârtha Gautama, of the Shakya clan of what is now Nepal, founder of Buddhism, who attained enlightenment in his thirty-fifth year. He is known to have studied with two teachers, râda Kâlâpa and Rudraka Râmaputra, who probably taught him a form of Yoga. He was fond of meditation and very skilled in it. This also is the time of Ajîta Keshakambalin, whose materialist philosophy was criticized by the Buddha.

  550 Approximate birth date of Goshala Maskariputra (died c. 487 B.C.E.), the founder of the Ajîvika sect of naked ascetics, which was criticized by the Buddha for some of its doctrines (notably its fatalism).

  Conventional date for the grammarian Pânini, who composed the Ashtadhyayi, a grammatical textbook that served nineteenth-century Western philologists as a model for their own grammatical theories. Native Indian tradition places him much earlier.

  Conventional date for Kanâda, author of the Vaishe- shika-Sûtra, the principal work of the Vaisheshika school (of natural philosophy) of Hinduism. This is probably also the time of Akshapâda Gautama, founder of the Nyâya school (of logic) and composer of the Nyâya-Sûtra (which mentions Yoga).

  500-400 Composition of the extant version of the Bhagavad-Gîtâ, which is a part of the present edition of the Mahâbhârata, and the oldest full-fledged Yoga scripture of which we have knowledge. The Gîtâ is presented as a dialogue between the God-man Krishna and Prince Arjuna, who lived much earlier (see 1450 B. c.e.). It emphasizes the Yoga of devotion (bhakti-yoga).

  483 Probable date of the First Council at which the Buddha’s senior disciples systematized his teachings.

  400 Probable date of the Buddhist Dhamma-Pâda written in the Pali language, which can be looked upon as a textbook of Yoga not unlike the Hindu Bhagavad-Gîtâ.

  400-100 Composition of important philosophical passages of the Mahâbhârata epic, notably the Moksha-Dharma, giving the teachings of Sâmkhya-Yoga.

  383 Probable date of the Second Council of the Buddhist monastic community, at which sermons and poems by monks and nuns were officially added to the canonical scriptures. At that time, the community split into Theravadins and Mahâsânghikas (whose thinking subsequently gave rise to Mahay ana Buddhism).

  327-325 Invasion of Northern India by Alexander the Great, which barely affected India’s civilization. He met with King Candragupta Maurya in 326 or 325 B.C.E.

  300 Council of Pataliputra, after which the Jainas split into Digambaras (nude followers) and Shvetâmbaras (followers dressed in white).

  269 -232 Emperor Ashoka, who, after his conversion, greatly furthered the dissemination of Buddhism.

  200 Conventional date of the composition of Jaimini’s Mîmâmsâ- Sûtra, the authoritative text of the Mîmâmsâ school (of ritualism) of Hinduism.

  200 B.C.E.—400 C.E. Era of the greatest influence of Buddhism in India.

  150 Conventional date of Patanjali, the grammarian, who is traditionally also regarded as the author of works on medicine and of the Yoga-Sûtra (but see 200 C.E.).

  100 Probable date of Lakulin (or Lakulîsha), the semi-legendary founder of the Yoga-practicing Pâshupatas and alleged author of the Pâshupata-Sûtra.

  The rise of Mahâyâna Buddhism; composition of the earliest Mahâyâna-Swfras, such as the Ashtd-Sahasrikd, the Lankâ- Avatara, and the Sad-Dharma-Pundarika, teaching emptiness (,shûnyata) and compassion (karunâ).

  C.E.

  50 Arrival of Buddhism in China.

  Possible date of St. Thomas’s mission to India.

  100 Caraka, a great authority on yurveda. Umâsvâti, author of Tattva-Artha-Adhigama-Sûtra of Jainism.

  The Buddhist adept Nâgârjuna, founder of the Mâdhya- mika school.

  150 Buddhist scholar ryadeva, a disciple of Nâgârjuna and author of the Catuh-Shataka.

  150-200 Composition of the Yoga-Sûtra of Patanjali (who is very probably different from the grammarian by this name) and of the Brahma-Sûtra of Bâdarâyana, one of the fundamental works of the Vedânta tradition. This is also the period of the final editing of Manu’s ancient Dharma-Sûtra (also known as the Manu-Smriti), which contains a chapter on the duties of forest-dwellers and ascetics and defines Yoga as restraint of the senses.

  200-300 Composition of the Vishnu- and Vâyu-Purânas.

  300-400 Date of the great Buddhist teachers Asanga (290-360 C. E.) and Vasubandhû (316-396 C.E.), who were brothers. The former established the Yogâcâra school, and the latter founded the Vijnânavâda school of Mahâyâna Buddhism.

  350 Kunda-Kunda, Jaina philosopher who composed the Samâyâ- Sâra.

  320 -500 The rulers of the Gupta dynasty bring about a cultural fluorescence, especially around 400 C.E.

  350 -500 Emergence of Buddhist and Hindu Tantrism. There is a Tibetan translation of a group of Tantric Sûtras under the title of Mahâ-Sannipâta. One of these Sûtras, the Ratna-Ketu- Dhâranî, was translated into Chinese around 450 C.E.

  375 Samantabhadra, Jaina philosopher.

  381 The Chandûl-Mandûl Bagîchî inscription of Candragupta II, which mentions several teachers of the Pâshupâta order and also depicts Lakulîsha, the founder of the order. According to the Mahâbhârata, the Pâshupâta teachings stem from Shiva Shrî Kantha, which must mean that Lakulîsha merely revived the doctrine.

  400-500 Composition of the Mârkandeya-Purâna, one of the earliest works of this literary genre, which describes a form of ritualistic Yoga. Some of its teachings, however, must be considered to have been derived from much earlier Purânic traditions.

  This is also a likely date for the composition of Îshvara Krishna’s Sâmkhya-Kârikâ, the source text of Classical Sâmkhya, and the composition of the Jayâkhya- and Sâtvata- Samhitâs, as well as other early scriptures of the Pancarâtra (Vaishnava) tradition.

  This is, moreover, the time of the founding of the Buddhist monastic university of Nàlandà, which produced many great teachers and adepts in the following centuries.

  450 Likely date of the Yoga-Bhàshya, the oldest extant commentary on the Yoga-Sûtra.

  This is also the time of the Buddhist philosopher Dinnàga, who authored seventeen works on logic and episte- mology.

  470-543 Bodhidharma, founder of the Buddhist meditation (chan) tradition in China.

  500 Invasion of India by the Huns.

  505 Birth of the astronomer Varâhamihira.

  550-700 Expansion of the Pâncarâtra tradition into South India. An inscription by Ràjasimhavarman in the Kailàsanàtha Temple refers to the Shaiva gamas of South India.

  Composition of the Ahirbudhnya-Samhità, an important Pâncarâtra scripture.

  600 Composition of the Buddhist Hevajrâ- and Guhya-Samàja- Tantra.

  600- 650 Buddhist philosopher Dharmakîrti.

  606-647 King Harsha, a patron of the arts, immortalized by the court poet Bàna.

  638-713 Hui-Neng, sixth and last patriarch of Chinese Buddhism.

  650 Tirtimùlàr, renowned adept-bard of South India, author of the Tiru-Mantiram.

  This also was the era of the long-lived Buddhist teacher Candrakirti, abbot of the monastic university of Nàlandà, who is considered the most important representative of the Màdhyamika school after Nâgârjuna.

  690-730 The Buddhist teacher Shàntideva (also called Busuku), author of the Bodhi-Caryà-Avàtara and the Shikshà-Samuc- caya, who is counted among the eighty-four great adepts (mahà-siddha).

  This also was the time of Padmasambhâva (“Guru Rimpoche”), who, at Shàntideva’s request, freed Tibet of lower spirits so that the Tibetans would become receptive to Buddhist teachings. Padmasambhâva is honored as a second Buddha by the Nyingma school.

  750 Haribhadra, a great Jaina scholar who authored Shad-Dar- shana-Samuccaya, Yoga-Bindu, Yoga-Drishti-Samuccaya, etc.

  788-820 Traditional date of Shankara, the great preceptor of Advaita Vedànta; some pundits place him as early as 509 B.
C.E., others around 84 C.E. However, his teacher’s teacher Gaudapàda, on whose Màndùkya-Kàrikà he wrote a commentary, cannot be placed much before 500 C.E. because of his clear leanings toward Màdhyamika Buddhism. It is, however, likely that the traditional date is too late and that Shankara should be placed between 650-750 C.E.

  800 Final redaction of the Caraka-Samhitâ, one of the principal works on yurveda.

  825 “Discovery” of the Shiva-Sûtra by the Kashmiri adept Vasugupta, who also authored the Spanda-Sûtra.

  850 Composition of Vâcaspati Mishra’s Tattva-Vaishâradî commentary on the Yoga-Bhâshya.

  900 Date of the oldest extant Hindu Tantra manuscripts, such as the Parameshvara-Mata-Tantra (859 C.E.) and the Sarva- Jnâna-U ttara-Tantra.

  Nâgârjuna’s Panca-Krama, which makes use of the first five stages of Patanjali’s eightfold Yoga.

  Nâthamuni, the renowned preceptor of Vaishnavism and author of the Yoga-Rahasya

  900-1000 Composition of the Lakshmî-Tantra (an important Pâncarâtra scripture), the Kaula-Jnâna-Nirnaya (a major text of the Nâtha order), the Bhâgavata-Purâna, and the expanded version of the Yoga-Vâsishtha.

  900-1200 Composition of the Amrita-Bindu-, Amrita-Nâda-Bindu, and Nâda-Bindu-Upanishads.

  928-1009 Tilopa, one of the eighty-four mahâ-siddhas and teacher of Nâropa. He is considered the founder of the Kagyu school of Tibetan Buddhism.

  950-970 Birth of the great Shaiva scholar and adept Abhinava Gupta, author of the voluminous Tantra-loka and numerous other works.

  956-1040 Nâropa, whose difficult discipleship under Tilopa is recalled in his well-known biography.

  973-1048 The Arab scientist and philosopher Alberuni composed a paraphrase of the Yoga-Sûtra in Arabic (c. 1025 C.E.).

  982-1054 Atîsha (also known as Dîpamkara Shrijnâna), of royal birth, who was one of the greatest Buddhist masters of his time, and whose Bodhi-Patha-Pradîpa served as the foundation for all subsequent teachings on the stages of the path (Tibetan: lam-rim).

  1000 Composition of King Bhoja’s Râja-Mârtanda, a commentary on the Yoga-Sûtra, Nârada’s Bhakti-Sûtra, and the comprehensive Prapanca-Sâra-Tantra.