The World of the Crusades

by Christopher Tyerman

  38. C. Tyerman, ‘“Principes et Populus”: Civil Society and the First Crusade’, Practices of Crusading, no. XII, pp.1–23.

  39. B. Z. Kedar, ‘The Jerusalem Massacre of July 1099’, Crusades, 3 (2004), 15–75.

  40. Letter of the crusade leadership to Pope Paschal II, September 1099, trans. Peters, The First Crusade, p. 295; Gesta Francorum, ed. and trans. Hill, p. 70.

  41. Baldric of Bourgueil, Historia Ierosolimitana, ed. S. Biddlecombe (Woodbridge 2014), p. 9.

  42. Caffaro, Annali Genovesi, trans. M. Hall and J. Phillips, Caffaro, Genoa and the Twelfth Century Crusades (Farnham 2013), p. 56.

  43. C. Tyerman, How to Plan a Crusade (London 2015), pp. 140–50 and refs.

  44. Ralph of Caen, Gesta Tancredi, trans. B. S. and D. S. Bachrach (Aldershot 2005), pp. 145, 152.

  45. Gesta Francorum, ed. and trans. Hill, pp. 19–20; A. Andrea, ‘Deeds of the Bishops of Halberstadt’, Contemporary Sources for the Fourth Crusade (Leiden 2000), p. 253 and n. 57.

  46. D. Queller and T. Madden, The Fourth Crusade (Philadelphia 1997), pp. 294–5.

  47. B. and G. Delluc, ‘Le suaire de Cadouin et son frère: le voile de sainte Anne d’Apt’, Bulletin de la Société Historique et Archéologique de Périgord, 128 (2001), 607–28.

  48. H. Nickel, ‘A Crusader’s Sword: Concerning the Effigy of Jean d’Alluye’, Metropolitan Museum Journal, 26 (1991), 123–8.

  49. In general, Tyerman, How to Plan a Crusade, pp. 140–50, 166, 186, 196, 209, 234, 247–8, 251 and refs; N. Paul, To Follow in Their Footsteps (Ithaca, NY 2012), pp. 90–134.

  50. In general, Paul, To Follow in Their Footsteps; J. Riley-Smith, The First Crusade and the Idea of Crusading (London 1986), ‘Theological refinement’, pp. 135–52.

  51. Chronicon S. Andreae Castro Cameracensii, ed. L. C.Bethmann, MGH SS, vii (Hanover 1846), pp. 544–5.

  52. Tyerman, God’s War, pp. 156–7.

  53. Historia Peregrinorum, RHC Occ, vol. III, p. 206.

  54. Riley-Smith, The First Crusaders, p. 155; Paul, To Follow in their Footsteps, pp. 85–6, 106–7; F. Arbellot, ‘Les chevaliers limousins à la première croisade’, Bulletin de la Société archéologique et historique de Limousin, 29 (1881), 37.

  55. B and G. Delluc, ‘Le suaire de Cadouin et son frère’, 607–28.

  56. The phrase is that of the English baron Brian FitzCount, c. 1143, R. H. C. Davis, ‘Henry of Blois and Brian FitzCount’, English Historical Review, XXV (1910), 301.

  57. M. Cecilia Gaposchkin, Invisible Weapon: Liturgy and the Making of Crusade Ideology (Ithaca, NY 2017), esp. chaps 4 and 5. Cf. memorial sermons, P. Cole et al., ‘Application of Theology to Current Affairs. Memorial Sermons and the dead of Mansourah and on Innocent IV’, Historical Research, 63 (1990), 227–47.

  58. In general, the pioneering N. Paul, To Follow in Their Footsteps, and pp. 91–3 for Pompadour.

  59. Chronicles of the Crusades, ed. C. Smith (London 2008), pp. 346–8.

  60. H. Nickel, ‘A Crusader’s Sword’, Metropolitan Museum Journal, 26 (1991), 123–8; in general, M. Cassidy-Welch, Remembering the Crusades and Crusading (London 2017).

  3 ‘THE LAND BEYOND THE SEA’

  1. D. Richards, trans., The Chronicle of Ibn al-Athir for the Crusading Period from al Kamil fi’l-Ta’rikh (Aldershot 2006), Part I, pp. 78, 278–9.

  2. William of Tyre, A History of Deeds Done Beyond the Sea, trans. E. A. Babcock and A. C. Krey (New York 1941; 1976 reprint), vol. I, p. 55.

  3. Willelmi Tyrensis Archiepiscopi Chronicon, ed. R. B. C. Huygens (Turnhout 1986); cf. P. W. Edbury and J. G. Rowe, William of Tyre: Historian of the Latin East (Cambridge 1988).

  4. Libellus de expugnatione Terrae Sanctae per Saladinum, ed. J. Stevenson (London 1875), p. 218; cf. M. Barber, The Crusader States (New Haven and London 2012), p. 299. On settlement, see R. Ellenblum, Frankish Rural Settlement in the Latin Kingdom of Jerusalem (Cambridge 1998); cf. J. Prawer, The Latin Kingdom of Jerusalem (London 1972); idem, Crusader Institutions (Oxford 1980).

  5. W. D. Phillips Jr, ‘Sugar Production and Trade in the Mediterranean at the Time of the Crusades’, The Meeting of Two Worlds, ed. V. P. Goss et al. (Kalamazoo 1986), pp. 393–406.

  6. William of Tyre, History, trans. Babcock and Krey, vol. II, pp. 374–5; Ellenblum, Frankish Rural Settlement, pp. 73–94.

  7. For a summary and references to sources, C. Tyerman, God’s War: A New History of the Crusades (London 2006), pp. 219–25; cf. P. Mitchell and A. Millard, ‘Approaches to the Study of Migration during the Crusades’, Crusades, 12 (2013), 1–12.

  8. Fulcher of Chartres, A History of the Expedition to Jerusalem, trans. F. R. Ryan (Knoxville 1969), p. 271.

  9. John of Würzburg in Jerusalem Pilgrimage, ed. J. Wilkinson (London 1988), p. 259.

  10. Tyerman, God’s War, pp. 222 and 936, n. 22.

  11. On this see now Barber, Crusader States, pp. 56–62.

  12. William devoted the first eight books of his History, out of twenty-two completed taking the narrative up to the early 1180s, to the First Crusade; see Edbury and Rowe, William of Tyre.

  13. H. E. Mayer, ‘Abū ‘Alis am Berliner Tiergarten’, Archiv für Diplomatik (1992), 113–33; The Travels of Ibn Jubayr, trans. R. Broadhurst (London 1952), p. 300 and cf. pp. 316–23.

  14. Ellenblum, Frankish Rural Settlement, p. xviii for map.

  15. D. M. Metcalf, Coinage of the Crusades and the Latin East in the Ashmolean Museum, Oxford (London 1995), esp. pp. 23, 52–3.

  16. E.g. in the conflict between Tancred of Antioch (allied with Aleppo) and Baldwin of Edessa (allied with Mosul) in 1108, according to Ibn al-Athir, Chronicle, trans., vol. I, p. 141; cf. N. Morton, The Field of Blood: The Battle for Aleppo and the Remaking of the Medieval Middle East (New York 2018).

  17. For the 1183 tax, William of Tyre, History, trans. Babcock and Krey, vol. ii, pp. 486–9.

  18. Metcalf, Coinage.

  19. Cartulaire general de l’Ordre des Hospitaliers de Saint-Jean de Jérusalem, ed. J. Delaville le Roulx (Paris 1894–1905), vol. I, pp. 222–3, no. 309.

  20. William of Tyre, History, trans. Babcock and Krey, vol. II, pp. 486–9.

  21. In general on the circumstances and politics of Outremer, Barber, Crusader States; Tyerman, God’s War, chaps 5–7 and 11; B. Hamilton, The Leper King and his Heirs (Cambridge 2000).

  22. B. Z. Kedar, ‘The Battle of Hattin Revisited’, The Horns of Hattin, ed. B. Z. Kedar (London 1992), pp. 190–207; J. France, Hattin (Oxford 2015); N. Morton, The Field of Blood (New York 2018).

  23. T. Asbridge, The Creation of the Principality of Antioch 1098–1130 (Woodbridge 2000), pp. 189–94.

  24. J. Riley-Smith, ‘Some Lesser Officials in Latin Syria’, English Historical Review, lxxxvii (1972), 1–26.

  25. Livres des Assises de la Cour des Bourgeois, chap. 241, RHC Lois (Paris 1843), vol. II, p. 172.

  26. A. Boas, Crusader Archaeology (London 1999), pp. 77, 84, 87, 102, 113, 118–19, 163–5, 168–70, 174, 178–9, 188, 217, 219, 237; P. Mitchell, Medicine in the Crusades (Cambridge 2004), pp. 856, 118–19, 148; R. Kool, ‘Coins at Vadum Jacob’, Crusades, 2 (2002), 73–88; R. Ellenblum, ‘Frontier Activities: The Transformation of a Muslim Sacred Site into the Frankish Castle of Vadum Iacob’, Crusades, I (2003), 83–97.

  27. K. J. Lewis, ‘Medieval Diglossia: The Diversity of the Latin Christian Encounter with Written and Spoken Arabic in the “Crusader” County of Tripoli’, Al-Masāq, 27 (2015), 119–52; idem, The Counts of Tripoli and Lebanon in the Twelfth Century (Abingdon 2017), pp. 16–17, 150, 214–19.

  28. C. Cahen, La Syrie du Nord (Paris 1940), pp. 41–2, 343–4, 405, 540; Usama ibn Munqidh, The Book of Contemplation, trans. P. M. Cobb (London 2008), p. 110; Tyerman, God’s War, pp. 224, 229–30; B. Z. Kedar, ‘Subjected Muslims of the Frankish Levant’, Muslims under Latin Rule, ed. J. M. Powell (Princeton 1990), pp. 135–74.

  29. Usama, Book of Contemplation, p. 147.

  30. B. Z. Kedar, ‘The Samaritans in the Frankish P
eriod’, in idem, The Franks in the Levant (Aldershot 1993), chap. XIX, pp. 86–7.

  31. William of Tyre, History, trans. Babcock and Krey, vol. II, pp. 323–5.

  32. C. MacEvitt, The Crusades and the Christian World of the East: Rough Tolerance (Philadelphia 2008); cf. in general, B. Hamilton, The Latin Church in the Crusader States: The Secular Church (London 1980).

  33. R. Röhricht, ed., Regesta regni Hierosolymitani (Innsbruck 1893–1904), no. 502.

  34. Tyerman, God’s War, pp. 231–2.

  35. A. E. Doustourian, Armenia and the Crusades: The Chronicle of Matthew of Edessa (New York and London 1993), pp. 245–57.

  36. For a general survey, D. Pringle, ‘Architecture in the Latin East’, Oxford Illustrated History of the Crusades, ed. J. Riley-Smith (Oxford 1995), pp. 160–83; and idem, Secular Buildings in the Crusader Kingdom of Jerusalem (Cambridge 2009); A. Boas, Crusader Archaeology (London 1999).

  37. William of Oldenburg saw it in 1211/12, Peregrinatores medii aevi quatuor, ed. J. C. M. Laurent (Leipzig 1864), p. 166 et seq. passim, trans. D. Pringle, Crusades, 11 (2012); cf. J. Folda, Crusader Art in the Holy Land (Cambridge 2005), p. 136.

  38. Above notes 12 and 29; Usama, Book of Contemplation, p. 43.

  39. Metcalf, Coinage, esp. pp. 14, 22–3, 40–65; see now A. M. Stahl, ‘The Denier Outremer’, The French of Outremer, ed. L. Morreale and N. Paul (New York 2018), pp. 30–43.

  40. Barber, Crusader States, p. 204.

  41. For wall inscriptions, al-Harawi’s memories in A Lonely Wayfarer’s Guide to Pilgrimage, trans. J. W. Meri (Princeton 2004), pp. 70, 72.

  42. William of Tyre, History, trans. Babcock and Krey vol. II, pp. 292–3; F. Michaeu, ‘Les médecins orientaux au service des princes latins’, Occident et Proche Orient: Contacts scientifiques au temps des croisades, ed. I. Draelants et al. (Louvain 2000), pp. 95–115; cf. Tyerman, God’s War, pp. 212–13.

  43. B. Kühnel, Crusader Art of the Twelfth Century (Berlin 1994), pp. 67–125; J. Folda, The Art of the Crusaders in the Holy Land 1098–1187 (Cambridge 1995), pp. 137–63; J. Backhouse, ‘The Case of Queen Melisende’s Psalter’, The Making and Meaning of Illuminated Medieval and Renaissance Manuscripts, Art and Architecture, ed. S. L’Engle and G. Guest (London 2006), pp. 457–70.

  44. C. Burnett, ‘Antioch as a Link between Arabic and Latin Culture in the Twelfth and Thirteenth Centuries’, Occident et Proche Orient, ed. Draelants et al., pp. 1–78 (perhaps slightly over-egged).

  45. Lewis, ‘Medieval Diglossia’, p. 136; Fulcher of Chartres, Historia, trans. Ryan, p. 222; William of Tyre, History, trans Babcock and Krey, vol. II, p. 294.

  46. Itinerarium Ricardi Regis, trans. H. Nicholson (Aldershot 1997), pp. 167, 171, 204.

  47. De constructione castri Saphet, trans. H. Kennedy, Crusader Castles (Cambridge 1994), pp. 190–8.

  48. Kennedy, Crusader Castles; R. Ellenblum, Crusader Castles and Modern Histories (Cambridge 2006); D. Pringle, Secular Buildings in the Crusader Kingdom of Jerusalem (Cambridge 1997); Boas, Crusader Archaeology, pp. 91–120.

  49. J. France, ‘Warfare in the Mediterranean Region in the Age of the Crusades 1095–1291: A Clash of Contrasts’, The Crusades in the Near East: Cultural Histories, ed. C. Kostick (London 2011), pp. 9–26.

  50. Ralph Niger, De Re Militari et Triplici Via Peregrinationis Ierosolimitanae, ed. L. Schmugge (Berlin 1977), pp. 186–7, 193–9.

  4 CRUSADES AND THE DEFENCE OF OUTREMER, 1100–1187

  1. Fulcher of Chartres, A History of the Expedition to Jerusalem, trans. F. R. Ryan (Knoxville 1969), pp. 149–50.

  2. Quoted in L. Melve, ‘“Even the very laymen are chattering about it”: The Politicisation of Public Opinion 800–1200’, Viator, 44 (2013), 42–3.

  3. M. Cecilia Gaposchkin, ‘The Echoes of Victory: Liturgical and Para-Liturgical Commemoration of the Capture of Jerusalem in the West’, Journal of Medieval History, 40 (2014), 237–59, esp. 251–2.

  4. C. Tyerman, God’s War: A New History of the Crusades (London 2006), pp. 170–5.

  5. H. E. Mayer, ‘Henry II of England and the Holy Land’, English Historical Review, xcvii (1982), 721–39; C. Tyerman, England and the Crusades 1095–1588 (Chicago 1988), pp. 46–7, 54–6.

  6. Orderic Vitalis, Ecclesiastical History, ed. M. Chibnall (London 1969–80), vol. VI, pp. 68–73, 100–4.

  7. C. Tyerman, The Invention of the Crusades (Basingstoke 1998), pp. 22 and 27; for disparate cross-giving rites, M. C. Gaposchkin, ‘The Place of Jerusalem in Western Crusading Rites of Departure (1095–1300)’, Catholic Historical Review, xcix (2013), 1–28.

  8. M. Barber, The New Knighthood: A History of the Order of the Temple (Cambridge 1994).

  9. Roger of Howden, Chronica, ed. W. Stubbs (London 1868–71), vol. II, p. 346; in general, J. Riley-Smith, The Knights Hospitaller in the Levant, c. 1070–1309 (Basingstoke 2012).

  10. H. Kennedy, Crusader Castles (Cambridge 1994), esp. pp. 54–61; for transfer of castles, S. Tibble, Monarchy and Lordships in the Latin Kingdom of Jerusalem 1099–1291 (Oxford 1989).

  11. A. Forey, The Military Orders from the Twelfth to Fourteenth Centuries (Basingstoke 1992), for a concise survey.

  12. Fulcher of Chartres, History, trans. Ryan, pp. 237–45, 255–8, 264–6; cf. William of Tyre, A History of Deeds Done Beyond the Sea, trans. E. A. Babcock and A. C. Krey (New York 1941; 1976 reprint), vol. I, pp. 548–56; vol. II, pp. 1–21.

  13. Fulcher of Chartres, History, trans. Ryan, pp. 238–9, 243–5; cf. William of Tyre, History, trans. Babcock and Krey, vol. I, pp. 548–50, and for the siege of Tyre, vol. I, pp. 550–6 and vol. II, pp. 1–21; Tyerman, God’s War, pp. 265–6 and refs.; Barber, Crusader States, pp. 139–41.

  14. Cf. J. Riley-Smith, ‘The Venetian Crusade of 1122–4’, I Communi Italiani nel Regno Crociato Gerusalemme, ed. G. Airaldi and B. Kedar (Genoa 1986), pp. 337–50.

  15. Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, trans. S. I. Tucker, English Historical Documents, gen. ed. D. Douglas (London 1955–75), vol. II, p. 195.

  16. Michael the Syrian, cited in Barber, Crusader States, p. 148.

  17. Chronicle of Ibn al-Qalanisi in The Damascus Chronicle of the Crusade, trans. H. A. R. Gibb (London 1932), p. 196.

  18. Trans. Niall Christie, Muslims and Crusaders: Christianity’s Wars in the Middle East 1095–1382, from the Islamic Sources (London 2014), pp. 133–5, quotation at p. 134; P. Cobb, The Race for Paradise: An Islamic History of the Crusades (Oxford 2014), pp. 38–41.

  19. Damascus Chronicle, trans. Gibb, pp. 200–2.

  20. D. Richards, trans., The Chronicle of Ibn al-Athir for the Crusading Period from al Kamil fi’l-Ta’rikh (Aldershot 2006), vol. II, p. 320.

  21. M. Lyons and D. Jackson, Saladin: The Politics of Holy War (Cambridge 1982), pp. 56–7.

  22. Chronicle of Ibn al-Athir, trans. Richards, vol. I, p. 337.

  23. J. Berkey, The Formation of Islam: Religion and Society in the Near East 600–1800 (Cambridge 2003), pp. 197–8.

  24. C. Hillenbrand, The Crusades: Islamic Perspectives (Edinburgh 1999), pp. 110–11; cf. idem, ‘“Abominable Acts”: The Career of Zengi’, The Second Crusade, ed. J. Phillips and M. Hoch (Manchester 2002), pp. 111–32; in general, N. Morton, Encountering Islam on the First Crusade (Cambridge 2016).

  25. Y. Lev, ‘The jihad of Nur al-Din’, Jerusalem Studies in Arabic and Islam, 35 (2008), 275.

  26. Chronicle of Ibn al-Athir, trans. Richards, vol. II, p. 334; Hillenbrand, Crusades, pp. 151–61.

  27. Ibn Shaddad’s biography is translated by D. S. Richards, The Rare and Excellent History of Saladin (Aldershot 2002); S. Mourad and J. Lindsay, The Intensification and Reorientation of Sunni Jihad Ideology in the Crusader Period (Leiden 2012), for Ibn Asakir.

  28. Berkey, Formation of Islam, p. 189.

  29. Trans. J. and L. Riley-Smith, The Crusades: Idea and Reality, 1095–1274 (London 1981), pp. 57–9.

  30. Trans. G. Loud, ‘Texts and Documents-2 A’, The Crusades: An Encylcopedia, ed. A. V. Murray (Santa Barbara 200
6), p. 1,298 and note 1.

  31. Vincent of Prague, Annales, MGH, vol. XVII, 663; G. Constable, ‘A Further Note on the Conquest of Lisbon in 1147’, The Experience of Crusading, vol. I, ed. M. Bull et al. (Cambridge 2003), p. 43 and n. 16 for refs.

  32. Bernard of Clairvaux, Letters, trans. B. S. James (Stroud 1998), nos 391–5.

  33. C. Tyerman, How to Plan a Crusade: Reason and Religious War in the High Middle Ages (London 2015), p. 112.

  34. Otto of Freising, The Deeds of Fredrick Barbarossa, trans. C. Mierow (New York 1966), p. 74.

  35. Bernard of Clairvaux, Letters.

  36. Bernard of Clairvaux, Letters, no. 394, p. 467.

  37. Odo of Deuil, De profectione Ludovici VII in orientem, ed. V. Berry (New York 1948), p. 125.

  38. Tyerman, How to Plan a Crusade, pp. 247–51.

  39. De expugnatione Lyxbonesni, ed. C. W. David (New York 1976), p. 57 et passim.

  40. C. Marshall, Warfare in the Latin East (Cambridge 1992), pp. 76–7 and n. 134.

  41. Tyerman, How to Plan a Crusade, pp. 167–70 and refs.

  42. William of Tyre, History, trans. Babcock and Krey, vol. II, pp. 192–4

  43. R.C. Smail, ‘Latin Syria and the West, 1146–1187’, Transactions of the Royal Historical Society, 5th ser. 19 (1969), 1–20; cf. the more positive J. Phillips, Defenders of the Holy Land: Relations between the Latin East and the West 1119–1187 (Oxford 1996); for a less rosy view, Tyerman, England and the Crusades, pp. 36–56.

  44. B. Hamilton, The Leper King and his Heirs (Cambridge 2000).

  45. J. Rubenstein, ‘Putting History to Use: Three Crusade Chronicles’, Viator, 35 (2004), 131–68; The Historia Iherosolimitana of Robert the Monk, ed. D. Kempf and M. Bull (Woodbridge 2013), pp. xliv–xlvii.

  46. De expugnatione Lyxbonensi, ed. and trans. David, pp. 26–46 for MS; (new edn and forward by J. Phillips, 2000).

  47. H. Livermore, ‘The “Conquest of Lisbon” and its Author’, Portuguese Studies, 6 (1990–1), 1–16; but see the doubts of C. West, ‘All in the Same Boat’, East Anglia and the North Sea World, ed. D. Bates et al. (Woodbridge 2013), pp. 287–300, esp. nn. 16 and 19.

  48. De expugnatione Lyxbonensi, ed. and trans. David, p. 104 note ‘b’.