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number needed to treat (NNT): diagnostic radiography and, 300–301, 307, 442n7; exposure time and, 286, 300–301, 307, 343, 442n7; food and, 343; as metric of benefit, 286; radon and, 286
nutrients, 153–54, 331, 333
nylon, 320
Oak Ridge National Laboratories, 228
occupational illness: anemia and, 87, 96–97, 99–100, 111; body burden and, 102–3, 336–37, 421n52; bone seekers and, 89–90, 92, 94, 175, 333; cancer and, 82–92, 97–98, 115; chimney sweeps and, 83, 319; Crookes tubes and, 30–33; denial of, 96; dial painters and, 86–92, 96–97, 100–103, 106, 175, 190, 247, 289, 331, 420n33, 425n23; dose limits and, 97, 99, 101, 203, 229–30, 283, 370–71, 448n39; fluorescence and, xii, 86, 102; hatters and, 82–83; ionizing radiation and, 98, 101, 108–9, 114–15; lip pointing and, 89, 92, 101; lung cancer and, 288; Manhattan Project and, 103–7; Marie Curie and, 100–101; maximum tolerable dose (MTD) and, 99, 102–4, 107, 109, 421n52; mercury and, 82–83, 119, 419n3; millisievert measurement and, 107–9, 282; miners and, 81–86, 90, 97, 104, 182, 190, 278–79, 281, 284–85, 292, 419n6; radioisotopes and, 85–86, 90, 100, 106, 110; radium and, 84–106, 190, 247, 289, 331, 419n12, 420n33, 425n23; radium girls and, 89–90, 93, 96, 101, 106, 155, 175, 182, 281, 331; radon and, 84–86, 90, 96, 101; safety and, 96–97, 101–4, 106, 110, 112, 112; settlements and, 92; toxicity and, 82–83, 104; uranium and, 85, 105, 112, 284; worker protection and, 97–101; x-rays and, 84, 92–94, 97–103, 106, 108, 113, 156
odds ratios, 286, 441n17
Ōishi, Matashichi, 165
“On a New Kind of Rays” (Roentgen), 26
oncology, 117, 134–35, 138, 140, 423n3, 441n1
Operation Crossroads, 432n35
optics: Newton and, 9; prisms and, 9, 24, 238, 254, 398, 400–402, 450n2; reflection and, 239; refraction and, 8–9, 254, 398, 400
organ doses, 331, 334–35
Out of the Night: A Biologist’s View of the Future (Muller), 219–20
ozone, 151
Pakistan, 382
Paracelsus, 81, 282
Paradox Valley, 127, 129–30, 279, 424n21
particle accelerators: atomic particles and, 63–64, 66–76, 246, 417n22, 418n33, 426n35; linac (linear accelerator), 133–40; radiation therapy and, 133–40, 246
particulate radiation, 37, 44–45, 53, 59, 61–62, 72, 74, 160, 254, 435n13
pasteurization, 446n25
Patek Philippe & Company, 86–87
Pauling, Linus, 234, 263–68, 438n46
pea plants, 208–9, 211, 212, 235, 237, 402
Pearl Harbor, 262
periodic table, 48–49, 90, 92, 175, 177, 238, 331, 333, 415n19
Peters, Mildred Vera, 137
phosphate groups, 234, 240, 247, 264–65, 267
phosphorescence, 414n1
phosphorus, 155–56, 236, 240, 247
photo-isomers, 35
photons, 415n15
Pillitteri, Carl, 346–48, 351–55, 447n1
Piscator, Matthew, 293–98
Piscator, Teresa, 297–98, 301
pitchblende, 48, 424n14, 425n29, 445n15
plague, 84, 188
platinum, 116–17
plum pudding model, 51–52, 54, 56, 61, 65, 77, 260
plutonium, 110–11, 159–60, 170, 177, 386, 423n76, 426n3, 429n36, 449n14
pneumonia, 82, 123, 133, 248
polarization, 398–400, 404–5
polio, 195–96, 421n51
politics: capitalism and, 218–20; Cold War and, 275, 392, 394; communism and, 218–25; EPA and, 289–90; hydrogen bomb and, 375–78, 383–94; Lautenberg and, 289; Nazis and, 223, 425n24, 437nn29 and 30, 439n36, 440n8; Soviet Union and, 174, 218–22, 385, 390–92, 429n36, 431nn19 and 29, 432n52, 436n23
polonium, 48–49, 55, 58–63, 415n18, 445n15
polyester, 277
polymers, 235, 237, 240–41, 247, 264
positive eugenics, 218–19, 223
Postattack Population of the United States, The (report), 390–92
potassium, 42, 177–78, 333, 336–38, 343, 444n6, 445n12
Pott, Percival, 83
preemptive attacks, 385–86
Princeton University, 13
prisms, 9, 24, 238, 254, 398, 400–402, 450n2
Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 330
Project 4.1, 174, 431n27
proteins, 195, 235–37, 241, 244, 247, 255–58, 262–66, 328
protons: accelerators and, 246; atomic particles and, 43–45, 52, 57–63, 66–67, 71–73, 90, 160–61, 170, 184, 246, 415nn12, 13, and 19, 417nn19 and 21, 418n33, 420n17, 426n38, 430n17; atom splitting and, 62–64; mass of, 57–58; neutron ratios and, 415n13; occupational illness and, 90; radiation sickness and, 160–61, 170, 184; radioactive decay and, 43–45
psychosomatic illnesses, 322, 324
purines, 240
pus, 235–36
P waves, 349–50
quantum mechanics, 64–66, 438n15, 446n20
QUICK COUNT program, 389–92
rabbit ears, 319
radar, 18, 112–14, 135, 319, 423n77, 444n18
radiation, ix–x; alpha particles and, 55–63, 66–67, 69, 75, 90, 160, 214, 245, 252, 319, 334, 417n14, 418n33, 419n7, 423nn76 and 77, 425n30; beta particles and, 45, 55, 58, 61, 155–56, 168, 184, 334, 419n7; body burden and, 102–3, 336–37, 421n52; burns from, 31–32, 36–37, 67, 114, 121, 134, 149–52, 159, 163, 167–68, 174, 319; cancer and, 187–93 (see also cancer); as carcinogens and, 183, 189, 201, 205, 279, 283, 288, 312, 314, 316, 319–21, 435n31, 440n11, 444n14; cell death and, 156, 158, 230–31, 233, 256, 269–70, 428n27; cellular target of, 235, 256–60, 319, 334; cohort studies and, 194–98, 203–5, 279, 292, 312–14, 323, 328, 441n17; dirty bombs and, 379; discovery of, xi; DNA as target of, 235, 256–60, 270–71, 319, 334; dose equivalence and, 107–9, 334, 422n66, 437n38, 445n13; dose limits and, 97, 99, 101, 203, 229–30, 283, 370–71, 448n39; dosimetrists and, 296, 331, 334; effective dose and, 294–96, 298–99, 303, 306, 334–40, 365, 367, 370–71, 442n6, 445nn13 and 15; exposure times and, 27, 133, 281–82, 333–34, 413n37, 440n8; fear of, 1–3, 368, 379, 382; fruit flies and, 207, 215, 216–18, 224–28; gamma rays and, 3, 35, 45–46, 59–62, 93, 101, 111, 113, 125, 133, 151, 155–56, 160, 174, 319, 334, 415nn14 and 15, 419n7, 423n76, 425n30, 426n38, 444n18; Gamow and, 65; gas ionization chambers and, 98, 404; Geiger counters and, 156, 165; genetics and, 207, 215, 216–18, 224–33; hormesis and, 443n13; hydrogen bombs and, 375–79 (see also hydrogen bombs); invisibility of, 1–4, 7–8; Life Span Study (LSS) and, 191, 196, 198–205, 227–29; mammograms and, 297–301, 303, 308; maximum tolerable dose (MTD) and, 99, 102–4, 107, 109, 421n52; mechanism of damage by, 109–10; mice and, 226–29, 420n7, 437n38; millisievert measurement and, 107–9, 282; as moving energy, 7; Muller and, 207, 215, 216–18, 225–28, 233; refraction and, 8–9, 254, 398, 400; Rochester study and, 226, 228–29; sterilization and, 97, 122–23, 217, 223, 226–27, 230–31, 423n9, 437n29, 444n18, 446n25; tolerance dose and, 217, 233; US Nuclear Regulatory Commission (NRC) and, 335–36; wavelength and, 33–37 (see also wavelength); x-rays and, 251–52
radiation detectors, 160, 275–77, 327
Radiation Laboratory, MIT, 112–13
radiation sickness, xii; atomic bombs and, 141–44, 148–49, 151, 155, 158–59, 161, 163, 187, 189–91, 196, 201–6, 227, 230, 262–63, 295, 306, 312, 335, 338, 428n29, 433n7, 434n28; atomic nucleus and, 160–61; bomb epicenter and, 193–94, 393; cancer and, 189 (see also cancer); case-control studies and, 194, 196–97, 204, 279, 312–14, 441n17, 443n14; central nervous system (CNS) syndrome and, 152–54, 157, 168; effects of, 145–63; epidemiological studies and, 190–94, 198, 203–4, 227, 283; exposure time and, 294–96, 298–99, 303, 306, 334–40, 365, 367, 370–71, 442n6, 445nn13 and 15; GI syndrome and, 146–47, 153–54, 167–68, 230; ground zero and, 144–45, 147, 149, 152, 157–58, 163, 169, 172, 193–94, 199, 427n5, 428n30; hematopoietic syndrome and, 156–57, 168, 428n28; Hiroshima and, 145–52, 155, 158–63; ionizing radiation
and, 150–51, 160; Life Span Study (LSS) and, 191, 196, 198–205, 227–29; linear no threshold (LNT) model and, 283–84, 440n11; Lucky Dragon No. 5 and, 164–65, 173, 178, 194, 329, 368, 393, 429n3, 431n26; Marie Curie and, 93; Nagasaki and, 159–63; neutrons and, 160; nuclear fusion and, 156–57; nuclear power plants and, 367–68; purple spots and, 187–89; radium and, 155, 163; recovery from, 158–59; silent casualties of, 163; uranium and, 140, 159–60; villi and, 146, 153–54; x-rays and, 149, 151, 156
radiation therapy: brachytherapy and, 124–25, 131, 248, 417n27, 424n13, 425n27; Bragg peak and, 245–46; cancer and, 115–40, 246, 248, 257, 294–309, 417n27, 423n3, 424n13, 426n42; Gilman and, 117; Grubbe and, 116–24, 131, 134–35, 139, 246, 423n4, 424n11; homeopathy and, 118–21, 126; hormesis and, 443n13; irritation hypothesis and, 120; Kelly and, 128–33, 139; linear accelerators and, 133–40; oncology and, 117, 134–35, 138, 140, 423n3, 441n1; radium and, 124–35; x-rays and, 117–25, 130–31
radioactive decay: alpha particles and, 55–63, 66–67, 69, 75, 90, 160, 214, 245, 252, 319, 334, 417n14, 418n33, 419n7, 423nn76 and 77, 425n30; atomic particles and, 43–45, 53–54, 62, 69–70, 72, 426n38; beta particles and, 45, 55, 58, 61, 155–56, 168, 184, 334, 419n7; decay chain and, 43, 85, 276, 425n29; gamma rays and, 3, 35, 45–46, 59–62, 93, 101, 111, 113, 125, 133, 151, 155–56, 160, 174, 319, 334, 415nn14 and 15, 419n7, 423n76, 425n30, 426n38, 444n18; half-life and, 46–47, 92, 178, 180, 185, 332–34, 444n8; kinetic theory of, 49; natural, 62; parent and, 85; process of, 43–45, 48; progeny and, 85, 101, 131, 419n9; Rutherford and, 54, 416n10
radioactive fallout: atomic bombs and, 166–68, 171; atomic nucleus and, 184; Bikini Atoll and, 164, 166–67, 171–73, 181–83, 186, 331, 393, 429n5, 430n8, 431n21; blood cells and, 167, 174; bomb epicenter and, 193–94, 393; cancer and, 177, 182; cesium and, 177–78; coconut crabs and, 181, 331; as different from Hiroshima and Nagasaki, 168–69; hydrogen bomb and, 165–67, 170–74, 182, 185, 368; iodine and, 175–80, 182; Kwajalein Atoll and, 174, 182, 432n45; Lucky Dragon No. 5 and, 164–65, 173, 178, 194, 329, 368, 393, 429n3, 431n26; Marshall Islands and, 171–72, 180, 182–83, 189–90, 365, 429n5, 430n9, 432n48; milk and, 179–81; neutrons and, 170, 184–86; nuclear fusion and, 165–68, 170, 177–80, 182, 185–86; Project 4.1 and, 174, 431n27; radioisotopes and, 166, 168–70, 174, 177–78, 182; radium and, 164, 168, 175, 180, 182; Rongelap Atoll and, 173–74, 177, 179, 181, 189, 432n45; Rongerik Atoll and, 171–74; safety and, 170, 182; “snow” and, 164–65; sperm counts and, 167–68; strontium and, 175, 177–81; uncontrollability of, 183–85; uranium and, 177; use of term, 169; weather and, 169–71, 174; x-rays and, 185
radioactivity: alpha particles and, 55–63, 66–67, 69, 75, 90, 160, 214, 245, 252, 319, 334, 417n14, 418n33, 419n7, 423nn76 and 77, 425n30; atomic bomb and, 41–42; atomic nucleus and, 42–46, 49–50; Becquerel and, 47–49; becquerel unit and, 40; beta particles and, 45, 55, 58, 61, 155–56, 168, 184, 334, 419n7; definition of, 42; discovery of, xi; electricity and, 42; electromagnetism and, 45, 50; exposure time and, 41; Feather and, 60; food and, 326–45; Fukushima nuclear power plant and, 330–33, 335, 343–46, 349–50, 352, 355–57, 362, 364, 366–71, 419n47; gamma rays and, 3, 35, 45–46, 59–62, 93, 101, 111, 113, 125, 133, 151, 155–56, 160, 174, 319, 334, 415nn14 and 15, 419n7, 423n76, 425n30, 426n38, 444n18; ingestion of, 88, 90, 92, 96, 101–2, 179–80, 201; ionizing radiation and, 45; maximum tolerable dose (MTD) and, 99, 102–4, 107, 109, 421n52; nuclear fusion and, 166 (see also nuclear fusion); particulate radiation and, 44–45; radium and, 40–41, 48–49; Rutherford and, 54; safety and, 41; silent casualties of, 163; uranium and, 39–42, 45, 47–49, 414nn3 and 4
radioisotopes: artificial, 44, 426n38; atomic nucleus and, 44, 46; atomic particles and, 54–55, 59–60; Bragg and, 247; cancer and, 134; chemical properties and, 90; DNA and, 247, 328; food and, 327–40, 345; half-life of, 46–47, 92, 178, 180, 185, 332–34, 444n8; Madigan and, 326–28, 330, 332, 338, 341, 344; migration studies and, 327–28, 330, 332, 345; mimicking of dietary nutrients and, 90, 331; natural, 42, 44, 336–37, 339, 415n13, 445n15; nuclear power plants and, 380; occupational illness and, 85–86, 90, 100, 106, 110; polonium, 48–49, 55, 58–63, 415n18, 445n15; radioactive fallout and, 166, 168–70, 174, 177–78, 182; radium and, 40, 55 (see also radium); Rutherford and, 55; stability of, 45–46; tracer studies and, 327–28, 345; in tuna, 165, 326–29, 341, 344–45, 429n3; uranium and, 42 (see also uranium)
Radiology and the War (Curie), 93
radio waves: Bragg and, 244–45; Branly and, 16–17; as carcinogen, 312, 320–21, 443n14; cell phones and, 311–15; DNA and, 342; Hertz and, 16–17, 27; IEI-EMF and, 322–24; infertility and, 324–25; International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC) and, 312, 320, 443n14; large objects in path of, 113; Lodge and, 16; Marconi and, 15–20, 50, 54, 68, 112–14, 245, 316, 413n47, 419n7; Maxwell and, 16, 55, 403; microwaves and, 113 (see also microwaves); Muller and, 444n18; National Radio Quiet Zone and, 322–23; nonionizing radiation and, 318–19, 419n7; radar and, 18, 112–14, 135, 319, 324, 423n77, 444n18; Rutherford and, 54, 244–45; safety and, 19; shortwave radio and, 412n27; suspected existence of, 15–16; transmission of, 17–18, 50, 68, 112, 135, 322; wattage and, 18; wavelength and, 18, 113, 412n27
Radithor, 98–106, 342
radium: atomic particles and, 59–60, 63; bones and, 88–92, 94, 97, 175, 247, 281, 331, 333–34, 340; brachytherapy and, 124–25, 131, 248; Bragg and, 247–48; cancer and, 124–35, 190, 201, 279, 281, 289, 417n27; Canonsburg, Pennsylvania and, 127, 424n18; carnotite ore and, 127–30, 279, 424nn17 and 21; decaying to radon, 85, 96, 101, 333, 415n13, 417n27; dial painters and, 86–92, 96–97, 100–103, 106, 175, 190, 247, 289, 331, 420n33, 425n23; discovery of, 40, 48, 415n18; Edison and, 94–95; food and, 331, 333–34, 340; ingestion of, 88, 90, 92, 96, 101–2, 179–80, 201; insolubility of, 89; Marie Curie and, 92–93, 100–101; maximum tolerable dose (MTD) and, 99, 102–4, 107, 109, 421n52; as mimic of calcium, 90; occupational illness and, 84–106, 190, 247, 289, 331, 419n12, 420n33, 425n23; paint containing, 87–88, 90, 92, 96–97, 100–102, 106, 190, 247, 289, 331, 419n12, 420n33, 425n23; Paradox Valley and, 127, 129–30, 279, 424n21; purified, 60, 125, 127, 130, 279, 424nn21 and 22; radiation sickness and, 155, 163; radiation therapy and, 124–35; radioactive fallout and, 164, 168, 175, 180, 182; radioactivity and, 40–41, 48–49; Radithor and, 98–106, 342; Rutherford and, 55–56; Standard Chemical Company and, 127–28, 130, 424n22, 425n23
radium girls: lip pointing and, 89, 92, 101; maximum tolerable dose (MTD) and, 99, 102–4, 107, 109, 421n52; occupational illness and, 89–90, 93, 96, 101, 106, 155, 175, 182, 281, 331
radium jaw, 88–89
radon: Becquerel and, 54; bulky adducts and, 280; cancer and, 85–86, 125, 131, 278–92; case-control studies and, 279; cohort studies and, 279, 292; death demographics of, 287–88; decay into polonium, 60–61; discovery of, 419n8, 425n29; DNA and, 280, 283; dose response and, 283; dosimetry and, 335; EPA and, 278, 282, 285, 287–91, 440n3, 441nn31 and 34; epidemiological studies and, 279, 283; false-positives and, 291; ground faults and, 276; Haber’s rule and, 281–82; in homes, 275–92, 336, 340, 440n3, 441n34; ionizing radiation and, 280, 282; Kelly and, 248, 425n31; landfills and, 289; linear no threshold (LNT) model and, 283–84, 440n11; lung cancer and, 278–91; miners and, 84–86, 90, 97, 284–85; number needed to harm (NNH) and, 285–86, 295–96; number needed to treat (NNT) and, 286; occupational illness and, 84–86, 90, 96, 101; pump for, 248; radium decay and, 85, 96, 101, 333, 415n13, 417n27; Rutherford and, 425n29; safety and, 276, 292; Schiffner map of, 276; smokers and, 279–80, 284–91; spotty leakage of, 276; static electricity and, 277; uranium decay chain and, 276; Watras home and, 275–78, 290–91, 440n3, 441n34; working level month (WLM) and, 282–85, 341, 440n9, 441n34
radon pump, 248
rad (radiation absorbed dose) unit, 107
RAND Corporation, 390
Rasmussen, Norman C., 358–61, 363, 381, 388
Raytheon Company, 113–14
recessive genes, 20
9, 214, 225
Red Cross Hospital, 145, 147, 188
Rees, Martin, 310
reflection: Bragg, 254, 269; light and, 239; neutrons and, 110; x-rays and, 251–55, 259, 264, 269
refraction, 8–9, 254, 398, 400
relative risks, 286, 441n17
rems, 107
retinal, 35–36
Richter scale, 348
risk: decision making and, 2; false-negatives and, 308; false-positives and, 291, 297–98, 301–2, 304, 308, 442n10; lifetime risk of cancer and, 200, 285, 295–96, 339, 370, 443n6; mammograms and, 297–304, 307–8, 334; “moving target” argument and, 300, 360, 387; odds ratios and, 286, 441n17; perception of, 1–2; relative risks and, 286, 441n17; risk-benefit analysis and, 202, 292, 299, 301, 306, 339, 341, 343. See also safety
Rochester study, 226, 228–29
Roentgen, Wilhelm Conrad: Crookes tubes and, 22–24, 27, 29–33; electricity and, 22; electromagnetism and, 29–30, 33, 405; as experimentalist, 20–22; fluorescence and, 22–25, 30–31; Hertz and, 27; media attention of, 26–27; Nobel Prize and, 21, 28, 48, 413n46; N-rays and, 403–4; poverty of, 413n46; publications of, 26–27; safety and, 28–29, 419n7; Thompson and, 28; x-rays and, 20–21, 24–30, 32, 38–40, 62, 77, 242, 398–401, 413n47
Roentgen Society, 97
roentgen unit, 98–99, 107, 172, 420nn21 and 40
Rollins, William H., 32–33
Rongelap Atoll, 173–74, 177, 179, 181, 189, 432n45
Rongerik Atoll, 171–74
Roosevelt, Franklin D., 105, 432n52
Roth, Victor, 96
Royal Society, 22
rule of succession, 388–89
Russell, Liane B., 228
Russell, William L., 228
Rutherford, Ernest, 247, 416n4; alpha particles and, 55, 160, 252, 418n33; atomic nucleus and, 54–58, 62, 160, 214, 252, 423n77; atomic particles and, 50, 52–68, 71, 75, 77; background of, 52–53; bounce-back experiments of, 56–57, 62, 160, 214, 252, 423n77; Bragg and, 244–45, 248, 251–52, 261; Cambridge and, 53–54; death of, 261; Earth’s age and, 417n14; electrical coronas and, 166; Gamow and, 66; Haber and, 262, 439n36; Kelly and, 131, 133, 417n27; McGill University and, 54; mentoring of, 439n34; Moseley and, 260; neutron prediction of, 61–62; Nishina and, 421n61; Nobel Prize and, 54, 439n34; radioactive decay and, 54, 416n10; radioactivity and, 54; radioisotopes and, 55; radio waves and, 54; radium and, 55–56; radon and, 425n29; as “second Newton,” 261; Soddy and, 54, 416n10; Thomson and, 52–54; transmutation and, 54, 416n10, 418n33, 435n13; University of Manchester and, 248