Rohingya oppression 127, 128, 129–32, 134–5, 136, 137
self-image as ‘saviour’ 35
seriousness about change xix, xx, 66, 167, 218–19
Shan oppression xxxi, 62–6, 68, 83
stranglehold on power 213–14
treatment of foreigners 168–70, 201–2
UN appeals for dialogue 42
use of torture 161–4, 169, 170–1
vote rigging and intimidation (1990) 15, 40
vote rigging and intimidation (2010) 207–10, 212–13
Min Ko Naing xxviii, 22, 35, 40, 149, 150, 151, 152, 153, 159, 173
Min Razagyi, King 106
Min Zeya 33, 173
Mindon, King 58, 63
Mitchell, Andrew 219
Mizoram State 105, 125
Mizzima News xxvii, xxviii, 43, 185
Moe Aye 162–3, 166
Moe Bu 58, 59–60
Moe Myat Thu 38–9
Moe Thee Zun 40
Mon people xix, xxi, 3,66–7, 134, 214
forced labour 67
sexual violence 67
Mon People’s Front (MPF) 66
Mon State 67, 143, 183, 184
Morland, Jenny 29
Morland, Martin 7–8, 27, 29–30, 31, 34
Mountbatten, Lord 5
‘Moustache Brothers’ xxiii
Mubarak, Hosni 217, 223
Muslims xix, 30, 180
disenfranchisement of clerics 209
see also Rohingya Muslims
Myanmar National Democracy Alliance Army (MNDAA) 101
Myaynigone incident (1989) 38
Myint Shwe 177
Myitkyina 76, 84, 96, 99, 100
Myitsone Dam 98
Myanmar/Burma Emergency Aid Network (MBEAN) 200
Myo Yan Naung Thein 163, 171
Na Ka Sa 128, 129, 130, 131
defectors 129, 130, 131
Naga people xix, 3
Nai Shwe Kyin (Ba Lwin) 66
Narameikhla, King 133
Nasheed, Mohammed 224, 225, 226
Nat Shin Naung 106
natala 130–1
National Coalition Government of the Union of Burma (NCGUB) 41, 42, 82, 132, 133
National Convention 67, 205–7
National Council of the Union of Burma (NCUB) 21
National Defence and Security Council 213
National Democratic Front (NDF) 82, 213
National League for Democracy (NLD) 36, 39, 41, 45, 54, 82, 112–13, 155, 156, 178, 185, 194, 227
communist allegations 34–5
de-registered (2010) xxiii, 212
election victory (1990) xx, 40
formation 34
Ghandi Hall declaration 41
propaganda against 34–5
re-registered(2011) xxiii, 215
Shwegondaing Declaration 211
‘vote no’ campaign (2008) 208
walkout from National Convention 205
National Referendum Commission (NRC) 209
National United Party of Arakan (NUPA) 133
National Unity Party (NUP) 34
Nationalities Brotherhood Forum 214
Naw December 51
Naw Eh Ywa Paw 56
Nay Kyi (‘Sunshine’) 153–4
Nay Myo Kyaw 158
Naypyidaw xxiii, xxiv, 215, 216, 227
Ne Win, General xix, 6–18, 26, 177, 204
Aung Gyi’s criticisms 22–3
and Aung San’s assassination 6–7
coup d’etat (1960) xix, 8–11, 87
demonetisation 19
hostility to ethnic peoples 9, 11, 12, 62, 87, 134
ideology 14
‘operation King Dragon’ 134
personality 13–14
‘resignation’ 24–5
resignation from the military 14–15
seizes power (1958) 7–8
and U Thant’s funeral 15–17
xenophobia 11–13
Network for Democracy and Development 48
New Light of Mynamar 187, 195–6
New Mon State Party (NMSP) 66–7, 103
NGOs xviii, xxi, 125, 136, 166, 198, 202
Ngwe Kyar Yan monastery 181, 187
Nhum Hkawn Din 92–3
Nichols, Leo 44
Nilar Thein 153–4, 155
Nita May 26, 30, 41, 154
North Korea 212, 222
Nyi Aung 38
Nyi Nyi Aung 169–70
Obama, Barack 218
Ohn Mying, Brigadier General 95–6
over-complication xxx–xxxi
over-simplification xxx
Padoh Aung San 54
Padoh Mahn Sha Lah Phan xvii–xviii, 54, 55, 57
assassination xvii, xviii, 71, 74, 189
Pakistan 128, 136, 186
Pakokku 174–5, 187
Panglong Agreement 2–3, 6, 10, 62, 87, 103, 227
Panter, Martin 221
Pa-O people xix, 78
Parry, Richard Lloyd 212
Pathein 38, 53, 221
Phan Foundation 74
Phone Maw 20
Phone Myint Tun 37–8
Pitts, Joseph 221
political prisoners xx, xxiii, 148–71
communication methods 165
creativity and self-education 165–6
dangers after release 167–8
deaths in prison 44, 159–60, 161
denied medical treatment 44, 160, 164–5
health problems 158–9
jailed in remote prisons 158–9
number 152, 167
prison conditions 164–5
releases (2009) 167
releases (2011/12) xx, xxiii, 149–51, 167, 201, 215
suffering of relatives 151–2, 168
torture 47, 155, 157, 159–60, 161–4, 169, 170–1
women 153–6
ponsan 161
print media 186–7
Prospect Burma 121
protests xx
(1962) xx, 14
(1974) xx, 15, 16–7
(1975) 17
(1976) 17
(1996) xx, 43–4, 155
(1988) xx, xxi–xxii, 19–27, 70, 148, 162
see also Saffron Revolution
Pyone Cho (Htay Win Aung) 158–9
radio 187
Radio Free Asia (RFA) 43, 144, 156, 160, 161, 187
Rainbow (Karen schoolteacher) 50
Rakhine people see Arakhan people
Ramos-Horta, José 226
Rangoon xix, xxiii, xxiv, xxviii, 2, 6, 11, 12, 14, 33–4, 39, 40, 45, 47, 70, 77, 116, 120, 146, 150, 158, 184
Cyclone Nargis 160, 189
protests and crackdowns 19–22, 23–7, 31, 32, 43–4, 110, 172–4, 175–82
Rangoon General Hospital 21, 23, 26
Rangoon University 14, 17, 19, 31, 181, 187
rape xviii, xxix, 21, 56, 59, 62, 64–5, 68, 71, 85–93, 98–9, 113, 119, 131
‘Red Bridge’ massacre 20, 25
Red Cross 166
Redford, Katie 70, 71
referendum on a new constitution (1973) 15, 204
referendum on a new constitution (2008) xviii, xxii, 15, 193, 207–10
RELA 124
Relief Action network for IDP and Refugee (RANIR) 85
religious persecution
Christians 94–6, 104, 197–8, 107–12, 114, 124
Muslims 129
Revolutionary Council 13, 14
Rimond Htoo 59, 60, 82–3
Rivers, Dan 135, 201
Rohingya Muslims xix, xxii, 127–38
‘boat people’ 135–6
debate over origins and history 132–4
denial of citizenship rights xxiii, 128, 134–5, 138
lack of education provision 128–9
extortion 129–30
extremism charges 136–8
fighting alongside Allies 4
forced labour 130
land confiscation 131
racial discrimination 1
27–8, 136
rape 131
religious persecution 129, 137
torture 131–2
Rohingya Patriotic Front (RPF) 135
Rohingya Solidarity Organization (RSO) 132, 136–7
Roxburgh, Jean 175–6, 179, 180, 181, 182
Russia 146, 222
Saboi Jum, Rev 88
Saffron Revolution xxi–xxii, xxiii, 142–3, 144, 149, 153, 154, 160, 167, 172–88, 223
Salai Bawi Lian Maung 108, 109, 122–3
Salai Ram Lian Hmung 110
San Aung, Colonel 114
San Yu 24
Sangermano, Father 106, 217
Sangha 174
Sao Hearn Kham 62
Sao Kya Seng 11
Sao Sai Lon (‘Shorty’) 9
Sao Shwe Thaike 6, 9, 10, 63, 134
Sargent (neé Eberhard), Inge 11
Sasa, Dr 119–21, 125
Saw Ba U Gyi 53
Saw Lee Reh Kyaw 79
Saw Lsa Lu 80
Saw Maung, General 32, 34, 35, 40–1, 43
Saw Mu (‘Mr Happy’) 79
Saw Sa Lu 80
Saw Tamlabaw 53
Saw Than Din 53
Saw Wai 158
Saya San 3
Second World War 2, 3–5, 10, 52–3, 86–7
Section 144, Burmese Penal Code 176, 177
Section 401, Burmese Criminal Code 150
Sein Lwin 25, 26
resignation 27
Sein Win 41, 42
Sen, Amartya xxi
sexual violence 67 see also rape
Shaheed, Ahmed 224
Shan people xix, xx, xxi, 6, 62–6, 78, 134, 214
human rights activists 68–70
oppression and abuse xxxi, 10–11, 62–6, 83
and the Panglong Agreement 3, 10, 62
rape 62, 64–5
Shan Herald Agency for News (SHAN) 68
Shan Human Rights Foundation (SHRF) 64, 65, 68
Shan Nationalities League for Democracy (SNLD) 152
Shan State 62–6, 68, 86, 94, 142, 159
Shan State Army (SSA) 82
Shan State Army (South) (SSA-South) 63, 66, 83, 103
ceasefire deals xx, 66, 83
Shan Women’s Action Network (SWAN) 64–5, 68, 194
Shwe Bo Prison 165
Shwe Mann 216–17
Shwedagon Pagoda 17, 29, 39, 66, 175, 176, 177, 178, 182
Shwekey Hoipang 110–11
Sittwe 129, 174, 184, 209
Slim, General William 4–5
Sollom, Richard 65
Smith, Martin 5, 7, 15, 66, 111, 133–4
social media 223
Soe Myint 31, 32–3
Soe Naing 21
Soe Win 97
Solzhenitsyn, Aleksandr xxx, 19
South Africa 222, 226
Soviet Union 222, 226
State Law and Order Restoration Council (SLORC) see military regime
State Peace and Development Council (SPDC) see military regime
Stilwell, General ‘Vinegar’ Joe 4, 87
Stokle, Deklan 221–2
Straw, Jack 69
student activists, escape to the borderlands 32–3, 47–8, 53–4, 75, 122–3
student protests see protests
Su Mon Aye 155–6
Su Su Nway 149, 153, 174
Sue Myint 42–3
Sule Pagoda 172, 175, 179, 180, 183, 188
Supreme Council of the United Hill People 10
Surakiart Sathirathai 204
Swan Arr Shin (‘Masters of Force’) 174
Tamwe Township High School massacre 183
Taunggyi 11, 30, 40
Thenasserim Division xix, 6, 33
Thailand xviii, 11, 23, 33, 48, 50, 53, 57, 68, 70, 75, 76, 77, 93, 115, 123, 125, 135, 141, 183–4, 206
activists banned 42
refugee camps 51–2, 59, 71–2
Thailand-Burma border xix, xvii, xxi, xxvii, 40, 41, 42, 49, 62, 71, 75, 88, 124, 142, 166, 168, 178, 181, 189, 220, 221
Thakerbaw, David 52
Thakin Kodaw Hmaing 17
Thakin Tin Mya 34
Than Nyein 213
Than Shwe, General 32, 97, 102, 145, 149, 153, 158, 168, 204, 212
Aung San Suu Kyi’s invitation to meet 215
becomes head of junta 43
current role 216–17
and Cyclone Nargis 195, 196
Thant Myint U 3, 14, 15
Thaung Htun 42
Thaung Sein 7
Thawng Za Lian 143
Thein San 160
Thein Sein 102–3, 168, 195, 213
health 216
meeting with Aung San Suu Kyi xxiii, 215
meeting with Hilary Clinton 219
meeting with William Hague 219
pledge for ethnic equality 66, 83
and the reform process xxiii, 147, 149, 160, 215, 216, 218, 222, 225
release of dissidents 150
suspends Myitsone Dam plan 98
Thet Naing Oo 167–8
Thet Win Aung 160
Thibaw, King 3, 63
‘Thirty Comrades’ 4, 7, 34
Thoo Mweh Klo Agreement 82
Thornton, Phil 161
Thuam Hang 107
Thura Myint Maung, Brigadier General 176
Tin Aye 166
Tin Maung Oo 17
Tin Tin Htwe Ma Pae 160
Tolkien, J. R. R. 84
torture xviii, xxix, 47, 55, 60, 70, 78–9, 85, 130, 131, 132, 155, 157, 159, 161–3, 164, 167, 170–1, 188, 220
‘Tri-colour’ 37–8
Tsong Kham 107–8
tuberculosis 164–5
Tuihing, John 119
Tun Hla Oung, Major General 7
Tunisia xxvi, 223
Tutu, Desmond 225
U Aung Tin 16
U Aye Win 46
U Gambira 160
U Kyi Maung 41
U La Wom 88
U Ludu Sein Win xxiv, 216, 226
U Nay Win 200
U Nu 5, 7, 8, 9, 15–16, 31, 62, 87, 134
U Nyan Win xxiv
U Pyin Nyar Disa 172, 173, 176, 177, 178, 179–80, 184–5
U Saw 6–7
U Thant, funeral debacle 15–17
U Thazana 54
U Tiloka 179, 181, 184
U Tin Oo xviii, 30, 40
U Uttara 30
U Win Tin xviii, 156–7, 167, 171, 211, 214, 216, 218
United Kingdom (UK) see Britain/UK
United Nations (UN) 15–16, 18, 27, 46, 83, 85, 86, 132, 157, 170, 191, 193, 195, 214
Commission of Inquiry 218–19
Commission on Human Rights 68
Development Programme (UNDP) 86, 117, 201
General Assembly 42, 167
High Commission for Refugees (UNHCR) 125, 127, 161
Human Rights Commission 42
resettlement programme 76
Responsibility to Protect xxii, 193, 194, 220
Security Council 67, 73, 194, 218
Union of Burma xx, 2–3, 62, 96, 103, 114
Union Solidarity Development Association (USDA) 47, 174, 180, 207–8, 213
Union Solidarity and Development Party (USCP) 212, 213
United Nationalities Federal Council 82
United Wa State Army (UXSA) 101
United States (US) xxii, 12, 42, 48, 67, 68–9, 86, 123, 128, 143, 170, 191, 216, 222
Unocal 70–1
Viro Sana 179
Visit Myanmar Year 44
Voice of America (VOA) 187
Wa people xix, 3, 77, 101
Wa Wa Kyaw 170
Waihnin Pwint Thin 148–50, 151
war crimes xxi, 219
Webb, Jim xxiii
White Sunday’ campaign 149
White, Danielle 29, 30
White, Sir George 106
White, Tom 29, 36–7
Wilberforce, William 189
Women’s League for Burma 211
Women’s Lea
gue of Chinland 113, 119, 126
World Food Programme (WFP) 116, 117
Wunpawng Ninghtoi (WPN) 85–6
Yawd Serk, Colonel 63, 65–6
Ye Min Tun 143
Ye Myint Aung 136
Ye Pyint (Cyclone Nargis survivor) 199
Yee Yee Htun 155
Yettaw, John xxii–xxiii, 47, 211–12
Young, William Marcus 77
Young Men’s Buddhist Association (YMBA) 3
Yuzuan Company 97
Zang Kho Let 104
Zarganar 149, 152–3, 163, 201, 215
Zau Seng 87
Zaw Htay 158
Zawng Hra 102
Zayar Thaw 227
Zipporah Sein 53, 210
Zoya Phan 54, 71–5
Acknowledgements
MANY BURMESE OF different ethnicities have helped me considerably in the course of my work for Burma, and for the research involved in writing this book. Some cannot be named, for their own security, but they know who they are and to them I express my deep respect, admiration and gratitude.
Those who can be named and who have helped me specifically with this book, either by providing information or sharing their own personal experiences with me, include former political prisoners Khun Saing, Su Mon Aye, Yee Yee Htun, Moe Aye, Tin Aye, Htein Lin and Nyi Nyi Aung; the daughter of a political prisoner, Waihnin Pwint Thon; Aung San Suu Kyi’s former ‘Tri-color’ security guards, Phone Myint Tun and Moe Myat Thu; elected Members of Parliament U Bo Hla Tint and Lian Uk; Dr Thaung Htun, UN representative of the exiled government, the National Coalition Government of the Union of Burma (NCGUB); the former General Secretary of the Ethnic Nationalities Council (ENC) and Chin activist, Lian Sakhong; the former General Secretary of the ENC and Kachin activist, U Hkun Sa; former ’88 Generation activist Khin Ohmar; the former General Secretary of the Karenni National Progressive Party (KNPP), Rimond Htoo; the Joint Secretary-1 of the KNPP, Khu Oo Reh; the Vice-President of the Karen National Union (KNU), David Thackerbaw; the General Secretary of the KNU, Naw Zipporah Sein; Zoya Phan, Campaigns Manager at Burma Campaign UK and daughter of former KNU General Secretary, Padoh Mahn Sha Lah Phan; Charm Tong, of the Shan Women’s Action Network (SWAN); Victor Biak Lian, Bawi Lian Mang and Za Uk Ling of the Chin Human Rights Organisation (CHRO); Hkanhpa Sadan, Kachin National Organisation (KNO); Nurul Islam, President of the Arakan Rohingya National Organisation (ARNO); U Aung Htoo, General Secretary of the Burma Lawyers Council; Harn Yawnghwe, Director of the Euro-Burma Office; Nancy Shwe, Director of Radio Free Asia Burmese Service; Thant Lwin Htut, Director of Voice of America Burmese Service; Nita May, BBC Burmese Service; Soe Myint, Editor of Mizzima News; Thin Thin Aung of the Women’s League of Burma; Zaw Min of the Democratic Party for a New Society (DPNS); Ka Hsaw Wa, founder of EarthRights International; Aung Saw Oo; Inge Sargent; and Louisa Benson Craig, who sadly died in 2010.
I am also indebted to friends outside Burma who work tirelessly for Burma’s freedom and have provided invaluable insights and information. They include Mark Farmaner, Director of Burma Campaign UK; John Jackson, co-founder of Burma Campaign UK; Yvette Mahon, former Director of Burma Campaign UK; Debbie Stothard of ALTSEAN-Burma; Jared Genser of Freedom Now; Dr Chris Beyrer of Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health; David Eubank of the Free Burma Rangers; John Bercow MP; Andrew Mitchell MP; Baroness Cox; Lord Alton; Dr Martin Panter; and James Mackay. Past British, American, Australian, Thai and Japanese diplomats have been generous in sharing their recollections and analysis, not least former British Ambassadors Sir Nicholas Fenn, Martin Morland, Robert Gordon and Mark Canning, and former British Council Director Tom White. Journalist Dominic Faulder, previously of Asiaweek, has been exceptionally helpful in providing news articles and information regarding the period from 1988–1996. I am also grateful to the staff of St Hugh’s College, Oxford University, for opening up their archive of press cuttings and other information about Aung San Suu Kyi and Burma.
Burma- a Nation at the Crossroads Page 36