The Penguin History of Modern Russia

by Robert Service

15 See note 12.

  16 G. Leggett, The Cheka, pp. 464–7.

  17 R. Conquest, The Great Terror. A Reassessment, p. 310.

  18 R. Service, Lenin, vol. 3, p. 53.

  19 E. H. Carr, The Bolshevik Revolution, vol. 2, pp. 52–3.

  20 SVIII, p. 354.

  21 A. Nove, An Economic History, p. 62.

  22 R. W. Davies, The Development of the Soviet Budgetary System, pp. 9, 31.

  23 A. Nove, An Economic History, p. 94.

  24 D. Orlovsky, ‘The City in Danger’, p. 74.

  25 R. Service, Lenin, vol. 3, p. 42.

  26 T. H. Rigby, Communist Party Membership, pp. 52–3.

  27 R. Service, ‘From Polyarchy to Hegemony’, pp. 86–7.

  28 R. Service, The Bolshevik Party, pp. 96–9, 106–9.

  29 See note 27.

  30 F. Benvenuti, The Bolsheviks and the Red Army, pp. 92–108.

  31 E. H. Carr, The Bolshevik Revolution, pp. 110–11.

  32 R. G. Suny, The Making of the Georgian Nation, p. 202.

  33 See for example GARF, f. 1318, op. 1, ed. khr. 4 (Collegium meeting from 25 August 1919 onwards).

  34 R. Pipes, The Formation of the Soviet Union, pp. 164–6.

  35 Ibid., p. 174.

  36 SVIII, p. 425.

  37 RTsKhIDNI, f. 17, op. 3, d. 9.

  38 R. Service, Lenin, vol. 3, p. 191.

  39 P. Kenez, ‘The Ideology of the White Movement’, pp. 78–83.

  40 TP, vol. 2, p. 278.

  41 J. Channon, ‘Siberia in Revolution and Civil War’, ch.9.

  42 W. G. Rosenberg, Liberals in the Russian Revolution, p. 340.

  43 E. Mawdsley, The Russian Civil War, pp. 63, 182–4.

  44 S. White, Britain and the Bolshevik Revolution, ch. 1.

  45 R. Service, The Bolshevik Party, pp. 147–8.

  46 S. M. Klyatskin, Na zashite Oktyabrya, pp. 396, 463.

  47 V. P. Danilov, ‘Dinamika naseleniya SSSR’, p. 246.

  48 J. Aves, Workers Against Lenin, ch. 4.

  49 G. Leggett, The Cheka, p. 329.

  50 O. Figes, Peasant Russia, p. 195, 304.

  51 Document quoted in Izvestiya, 27 April 1992, p. 3.

  52 SX, pp. 349–50.

  53 PSS, vol. 42, pp. 134, 156–9.

  54 PSS, vol. 42, p. 179; RTsKhIDNI, f. 17, op. 2, d. 49, item 1.

  7 The New Economic Policy (1921–1928)

  1 A. Nove, An Economic History, p. 94.

  2 R. Service, Lenin, vol. 3, p. 169.

  3 RTsKhIDNI, f. 17, op. 3, d. 131, item 1.

  4 This can be gauged from the written questions passed up to Lenin at the Congress: RTsKhIDNI, f. 5, op. 2, d. 7, pp. 1–88.

  5 See ibid., f. 46, op. 1, d. 2.

  6 N. Valentinov, Novaya ekonomicheskaya politika i krizis partii, pp. 30–31.

  7 RTsKhIDNI, f. 17, op. 3, d. 155, item 11.

  8 Krest’yanskoe vosstanie v Tambovskoi, doc. 266.

  9 PSS, vol. 45, pp. 189–90.

  10 Stalin referred to it contemptuously as national ‘liberalism’: ITsKKPSS, no. 9 (1989), p. 199.

  11 R. Service, Lenin, vol. 3, pp. 190–95.

  12 Originally Lenin wanted to call it the Union of Soviet Republics of Europe and Asia: PSS, vol. 45, pp. 211–12; but, after much haggling with Stalin, there was agreement on the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics.

  13 RTsKhIDNI, f. 17, op. 3, d. 291, item 2; I. K. Gamburg et al., M. V. Frunze. Zhizn’ i deyatel’nost’, pp. 292, 294.

  14 SX, pp. 213–14.

  15 Ibid.

  16 See for example GARF, f. 1318, op. 1, ed. khr. 1 (Narkomnats collegium, 8 March 1919).

  17 The Muslim rebels in central Asia, the basmachi, were never completely suppressed in the 1920s; but their ability to disrupt the Soviet administrative order was small.

  18 G. Hewitt, ‘Aspects of Language in Georgia (Georgian and Abkhaz)’, p. 132.

  19 Izvestiya, 1 January 1923.

  20 S. Kharmandaryan, Lenin i stanovlenie zakavkazskoi federatsii, chs 2–3.

  21 G. A. Galoyan and K. S. Khudaverdyan (eds), Nagornyi Karabakh, pp. 24, 32–3.

  22 Report in Nezavisimaya gazeta, 12 May 1991.

  23 ITsKKPSS, no. 9 (1990), p. 212.

  24 V. Kozlov, The Peoples of the Soviet Union.

  25 ITsKKPSS, no. 4 (1990), p. 194 (Politburo minute).

  26 Ibid., pp. 194, 197.

  27 A. Luukanen, The Party of Unbelief, p. 183; J. Baberowski, Der Feind ist überall, pp. 421–35.

  28 Smolensk Party Archives, WKP6, 9 January 1920.

  29 RTsKhIDNI, f. 17, op. 3, d. 187, item 2.

  30 A. Blyum, Za kulisami ‘Ministerstva Pravdy’, p. 79.

  31 PSS, vol. 45, p. 13.

  32 Vserossiiskaya konferentsiya RKP (bol’shevikov), bulletin 3, pp. 80, 82.

  33 Bolshevik-edited satirical magazines were allowed to mock only those phenomena which incurred the party’s disapproval.

  34 T. H. Rigby, Communist Party Membership, p. 52.

  35 E. H. Carr and R. W. Davies, Foundations of a Planned Economy, vol. 1, p. 545.

  36 R. Service, The Bolshevik Party, pp. 168–9.

  37 L. Gordon and E. Klopov, Chto eto bylo?, pp. 92–3.

  38 R. Stites, Revolutiónary Dreams, chs 3, 4.

  39 Nevertheless it should be noted that fifty-eight per cent of newspaper copies were sold in Moscow and Leningrad in 1925: R. Stites, Russian Popular Culture, p. 42.

  40 S. Fitzpatrick, ‘Sex and Revolution: an Examination of Literacy and Statistical Data on the Mores of Soviet Students in the 1920s’, p. 121.

  41 M. Dewar, Labour Policy in the USSR, p. 144.

  42 E. H. Carr and R. W. Davies, Foundations of a Planned Economy, vol. 1, pp. 460, 605.

  43 P. Juviler, Revolutionary Law and Order, ch. 2.

  44 A. M. Ball, Russia’s Last Capitalists, pp. 39–40.

  45 PSS, vol. 44, p. 397.

  46 C. Ward, Russia’s Cotton Workers, pp. 113–16.

  47 W. Chase, Workers, Society and the Soviet State, pp. 220–24.

  48 D. Thorniley, The Rise and Fall of the Soviet Rural Communist Party, p. 17.

  49 R. Taylor, The Politics of the Soviet Cinema, p. 65.

  50 E. A. Rees, State Control in Soviet Russia, pp. 87–92.

  51 T. H. Rigby, ‘The Origins of the Nomenklatura System’, pp. 84–5.

  52 T. H. Rigby, ‘Early provincial cliques and the rise of Stalin’.

  8 Leninism and its Discontents

  1 R. Service, Lenin, vol. 3, pp. 291–4.

  2 A. Mikoyan, Vospominaniya i mysli o Lenine, p. 195.

  3 R. Service, Lenin, vol. 3, p. 257.

  4 ITsKKPSS, no. 4 (1991), pp. 187–8.

  5 PSS, vol. 54, p. 327.

  6 PSS, vol. 45, pp. 344–5.

  7 R. Service, Lenin, vol. 3, p. 297.

  8 PSS, vol. 45, pp. 329–30.

  9 This distinction was pointed out to me by Geoffrey Hosking.

  10 The series of the Leninskii sbornik continued through to the years of Gorbachëv.

  11 J. D. Biggart, ‘Bukharin’s Theory of Cultural Revolution’, pp. 146–58.

  12 A. Nove, An Economic History, p. 194.

  13 R. Service, The Bolshevik Party, p. 198.

  14 I. V. Stalin, Sochineniya, vol. 6, pp. 69–188.

  15 R. Medvedev, Let History Judge, pp. 509–10.

  16 J. Erickson, The Soviet High Command. A Military-Political History, ch. 9.

  17 A. C. Sutton, Western Technology and Soviet Economic Development, p. 11.

  18 M. J. Dohan’s calculation in R. W. Davies, From Tsarism to the NEP, p. 331.

  19 R. B. Day, Leon Trotsky and the Politics of Economic Isolation, ch. 3.

  20 E. H. Carr and R. W. Davies, Socialism in One Country, vol. 1, pp. 508–9.

  21 On the difficulties of the available statistics see R. W. Davies, ‘Changing Economic Systems: An Overview’, p. 9.

  22 S. G. Wheatcroft, R. W. Davies and J. Cooper, ‘Soviet Industrialisation Reconsid
ered’, Economic History Review, no. 2 (1986), p. 270.

  23 R. W. Davies, The Socialist Offensive, p. 8.

  24 E. H. Carr and R. W. Davies, Foundations of a Planned Economy, vol. 1, part 1, pp. 287, 298.

  25 R. W. Davies, The Socialist Offensive, p. 36.

  PART TWO

  9 The First Five-Year Plan (1928–1932)

  1 J. Hughes, Stalin, Siberia and the Crisis of the New Economic Policy, p. 139.

  2 E. H. Carr and R. W. Davies, Foundations of a Planned Economy, vol. 2, p. 75.

  3 A. Larina, This I Cannot Forget, p. 251.

  4 Y. Taniuchi, ‘Decision-making on the Urals-Siberian Method’, pp. 79–85.

  5 K. Bailes, Technology and Society under Lenin and Stalin; N. Lampert, The Technical Intelligentsia and the Soviet State.

  6 R. W. Davies, The Soviet Economy in Turmoil, pp. 68, 126, 180.

  7 C. Merridale, Moscow Politics and the Rise of Stalin, p. 53.

  8 Quoted in D. A. Volkogonov, Stalin: Triumf i tragediya, vol. 1, part 2, p. 52.

  9 Pravda, 5 February 1931.

  10 R. Lewis, ‘Foreign Economic Relations’, p. 208.

  11 A. C. Sutton, Western Technology and Soviet Economic Development, pp. 362–73.

  12 E. H. Carr and R. W. Davies, Foundations of a Planned Economy, vol. 3, part 1, p. 233.

  13 O. V. Khlevnyuk, ‘Prinuditel’nyi trud v ekonomike SSSR’, p. 75.

  14 V. P. Danilov, Pravda, 16 September 1988.

  15 A. Romano, ‘Peasant-Bolshevik Conflicts Inside the Red Army’, pp. 114–15.

  16 M. Lewin, Russian Peasants and Soviet Power, p. 391.

  17 S. G. Wheatcroft, ‘More Light on the Scale of Repression’, p. 366.

  18 Stalinskoe Politbyuro v 30-e gody., pp. 114–15.

  19 R. W. Davies in The Economic Transformation, table 19.

  20 R. Munting, The Economic Development of the USSR, p. 93.

  21 R. W. Davies in The Economic Transformation, table 22.

  22 Ibid., p. 152.

  23 Ibid., p. 36 and table 31.

  24 Istoriya SSSR, no. 3 (1989), p. 44.

  25 S. Fitzpatrick, Stalin’s Peasants, p. 65.

  26 Yu. A. Moshkov, Zernovaya problema, p. 136; J. Barber and R. W. Davies, ‘Employment and Industrial Labour’, p. 103.

  27 S. Fitzpatrick, ‘Stalin and the Making of a New Elite’.

  28 T. H. Rigby, Communist Party Membership, pp. 52–3.

  29 A. K. Sokolov, Lektsii po Sovetskoi istorii, p. 130.

  30 R. W. Davies, ‘Industry’, p. 145.

  31 R. MacNeal, Stalin: Man and Ruler, p. 218.

  32 RTsKhIDNI, f. 44, op. 1, d. 5, pp. 20–21; PSS, vol. 41, p. 458.

  33 A. di Biagio, Le origini dell’isolazionismo, pp. 33–48.

  34 O. V. Khlevnyuk, Stalin i Ordzhonikidzè, pp. 22–9.

  35 P. Broué, ‘Trotsky et le bloc des oppositions de 1932’.

  36 Cited in O. V. Khlevnyuk, ‘The Objectives of the Great Terror’, p. 159.

  10 Fortresses under Storm: Culture, Religion, Nation

  1 L. Gordon and E. Klopov, Chto eto bylo?, p. 92.

  2 Narodnoe khozyaistvo za 70 let, p. 528.

  3 Gordon and Klopov, Chto eto bylo?, p. 87.

  4 Ibid., p. 89.

  5 Narodnoe khozyaistvo za 70 let, p. 569.

  6 S. Kotkin, Magnetic Mountain: Stalinism as Civilisation.

  7 I. V. Stalin, Sochineniya, vol. 14, p. 89.

  8 E. A. Osokina, lerarkhiya potrebleniya, p. 116.

  9 A. Nove, An Economic History, pp. 224–5; R. W. Davies in The Economic Transformation, p. 17.

  10 O. V. Khlevnyuk, Stalin i Ordzhonikidze, pp. 35–7.

  11 Nove, Economic History, pp. 178, 180.

  12 O. V. Khlevnyuk, 1937-y: Stalin, NKVD i sovetskoe obshchestvo, p. 27.

  13 I. V. Stalin, Sochineniya, vol. 13, p. 211.

  14 O. V. Khlevnyuk, 1937-y, pp. 28–9.

  15 E. Radzinsky, Stalin, pp. 279–86.

  16 R. Medvedev, Sem’ya tirana, p. 4.

  17 R. Medvedev, Let History Judge, p. 224.

  18 D. A. Volkogonov, Moskovskie novosti, no. 38 (18 September 1988), p. 16.

  19 B. Souvarine, Stalin, p. 485.

  20 P. N. Pospelov, ‘Pyatdesyat let KPSS’, pp. 21–2.

  21 B. A. Starkov, Dela i lyudi stalinskogo vremeni, p. 89.

  22 Even after the late 1960s, moreover, there was a recurrence of widespread popular enthusiasm, especially under Gorbachëv in the second half of the 1980s.

  23 R. Stites, Russian Popular Culture, p. 97.

  24 Ibid., p. 82.

  25 S. Fitzpatrick, Stalin’s Peasants, p. 218.

  26 B. Nahaylo and V. Svoboda, Soviet Disunion, p. 66.

  27 Akademicheskoe delo 1929–1931, p. xlviii.

  28 B. A. Starkov, Dela i lyudi, p. 36.

  29 K. Simonov, Glazami, p. 37.

  30 M. Ellman, ‘On Sources: A Note’, p. 914.

  31 R. Conquest, Harvest of Sorrow, pp. 323–8.

  32 R. Kaiser, The Geography of Nationalism, p. 116.

  33 D. Pospielovsky, The Russian Church under the Soviet Regime, vol. 1, p. 175.

  34 Ibid., pp. 173–4.

  35 I. Antinova and I. Merkert, Moskva-Berlin, 1900–1950, p. 514.

  36 S. Bruk and V. Kabuzan, ‘Dinamika chislennosti’, pp. 3–21.

  37 The contributions of S. Crisp (p. 38), S. Akiner (p. 107) and G. Hewitt (p. 143) in M. Kirkwood, Language Planning in the Soviet Union.

  38 M. Friedberg, Russian Classics in Soviet Jackets, pp. 32–56.

  11 Terror upon Terror (1934–1938)

  1 E. Bacon, The Gulag at War, p. 10.

  2 O. V. Khlevnyuk, ‘The Objectives of the Great Terror’, p. 173, which draws on V. M. Molotov’s statement in F. Chuev, Sto sorok besed s Molotovym, pp. 390–91, 416. See also D. Shearer, Policing Stalin’s Socialism: Repression and Social Order in the Soviet Union, 1924–1953, pp. 285–319.

  3 P. Hagenloh, Stalin’s Police: Public Order and Mass Repression in the USSR, 1926–1941, pp. 147–95; D. Shearer, Policing Stalin’s Socialism, pp. 4–11.

  4 F. Benvenuti, ‘A Stalinist Victim of Stalinism’, pp. 141–2.

  5 See Kaganovich’s speech on 17 January 1934: IV Moskovskaya oblastnaya, pp. 49–50.

  6 SXVII, p. 537.

  7 T. H. Rigby, Communist Party Membership, p. 204.

  8 SXVII, pp. 34, 36.

  9 SXVII, pp. 353, 566.

  10 SXVII, p. 46 (Eikhe); p. 600 (Shiryatov).

  11 SXVII, pp. 380–413, 439–41. At the time Mikoyan was only a candidate member of the Politburo.

  12 SXVII, pp. 64, 91, 147.

  13 SXVII, p. 354.

  14 SXVII, pp. 435, 649.

  15 SXVII, p. 259.

  16 O. V. Khlevnyuk, 1937-y, p. 36.

  17 R. Conquest, The Great Terror: A Reassessment, p. 33.

  18 SXVII, p. 245.

  19 O. V. Khlevnyuk, Politbyuro. Mekhanizmy politicheskoi vlasti, pp. 112–13.

  20 F. Benvenuti, ‘Kirov nella politica sovietica’.

  21 O. V. Khlevnyuk, 1937-y, p. 42.

  22 Ibid., p. 49; D. Shearer, ‘Social Disorder, Mass Repression, and the NKVD during the 1930s’.

  23 G. T. Rittersporn, Simplifications staliniennes, p. 27.

  24 F. Benvenuti and S. Pons, Il Sistema di Potere dello Stalinismo, p. 105.

  25 ITsKKPSS, no. 9 (1989), p. 39.

  26 E. A. Rees, ‘Stalin, the Politbuto and Rail Transport Policy’, p. 124.

  27 F. Benvenuti, Fuoco sui Sabotatori!, ch. 2; and D. Filtzer, Soviet Workers and Stalinist Industrialisation, ch. 4; E. A. Rees, Stalinism and Soviet Rail Transport, pp. 123–7.

  28 E. Zaleski, Stalinist Planning for Economic Growth, pp. 243–8.

  29 P. Broué, Trotsky, pp. 709–12.

  30 ITsKKPSS, no. 8 (1989), p. 100.

  31 S. G. Wheatcroft and R. W. Davies, ‘Agriculture’, table 19.

  32 O. V. Khlevnyuk, 1937-y, pp. 132–6.

  33 E. A. Rees, ‘Stalin, the
Politburo and Rail Transport Policy’, p. 106.

  34 O. V. Khlevnyuk, 1937-y, p. 77.

  35 Ibid., p. 114.

  36 Ibid.

  37 G. T. Rittersporn, Simplifications staliniennes, p. 144.

  38 Document quoted by O. V. Khlevnyuk, ‘The Objectives of the Great Terror’, p. 166.

  39 J. Erickson, The Soviet High Command, pp. 296–8, 402–3; S. Pons, Stalin e la Guerra Inevitabile, pp. 152–3.

  40 Rodina, no. 3 (1994), pp. 74–5.

  41 Moskovskie novosti, no. 15, 10 April 1989.

  42 Quoted in B. A. Starkov, Dela i lyudi, pp. 127–8.

  43 Trud, 4 June 1992.

  44 Izvestiya, 10 June 1992.

  45 See note 43.

  46 Pravda, 19 January 1938.

  47 Moskovskie novosti, 21 June 1992, p. 19.

  48 See note 46.

  49 Otechestvennye arkhivy, no. 2 (1992), pp. 28–9.

  50 S. G. Wheatcroft and R. W. Davies, ‘Population’, p. 77.

  51 Such was the case with the deposition made by Red Army Commander-in-Chief Mikhail Tukhachevski before he was dragged off to the firing-squad.

  52 K. Simonov, Glazami, p. 299.

  53 Conquest, The Great Terror: A Reassessment, p. 334.

  54 R. W. Davies, ‘Forced Labour Under Stalin’, p. 67.

  55 G. Gill, The Origins of the Stalinist Political System, p. 279.

  56 Tak eto bylo. Natsional’ny repressii v SSSR, vol. 1, p. 44, 50, 86, 96.

  57 Stalin’s marginal notes as cited by O. Volobuev and S. Kuleshov, Ochishchenie, p. 146.

  58 Moskovskie novosti, no. 32, 7 August 1988.

  59 R. C. Tucker, Stalin in Power. The Revolution from Above, pp. 482–3.

  60 B. A. Viktorov, ‘Geroi iz 37-go’, Komsomol’skaya pravda, 21 August 1988.

  61 Trud, 4 June 1992.

  62 Ibid.

  63 K. Simonov, Glazami, p. 315.

  64 V. F. Nekrasov (ed.), Beria: konets kar’ery, p. 317.

  65 O. V. Khlevnyuk, 1937-y, pp. 221–2.

  66 R. W. Davies, ‘Industry’, table 31.

  67 N. Khrushchev, Khrushchev Remembers, p. 273.

  68 K. Simonov, Glazami, p. 58.

  69 E. A. Rees, ‘Stalin, the Politburo and Rail Transport Policy’, pp. 107, 111.

  70 SVIII, pp. 143–4, 229.

  12 Coping with Big Brothers

  1 O. V. Khlevnyuk, 1937-y: Stalin, NKVD i sovetskoe obshchestvo, pp. 232–3.

  2 Computed from data in G. Gill, The Origins of the Stalinist Political System, p. 416.