A Box of Sand

by Charles Stephenson

  38 Tommaso Tittoni (Trans. Bernardo Quaranta di San Severino), Italy’s Foreign and Colonial Policy: A Selection From the Speeches Delivered in the Italian Parliament by the Italian Foreign Affairs Minister Senator Tommaso Tittoni during his Six Years of Office (1903-1909), (London; Smith, Elder, 1914) p. 21.

  39 Tommaso Tittoni (Trans. Bernardo Quaranta di San Severino), Italy’s Foreign and Colonial Policy: A Selection From the Speeches Delivered in the Italian Parliament by the Italian Foreign Affairs Minister Senator Tommaso Tittoni during his Six Years of Office (1903-1909), (London; Smith, Elder, 1914) p. 27.

  40 Tommaso Tittoni (Trans. Bernardo Quaranta di San Severino), Italy’s Foreign and Colonial Policy: A Selection From the Speeches Delivered in the Italian Parliament by the Italian Foreign Affairs Minister Senator Tommaso Tittoni during his Six Years of Office (1903-1909), (London; Smith, Elder, 1914) p. 29.

  41 Tommaso Tittoni (Trans. Bernardo Quaranta di San Severino), Italy’s Foreign and Colonial Policy: A Selection From the Speeches Delivered in the Italian Parliament by the Italian Foreign Affairs Minister Senator Tommaso Tittoni during his Six Years of Office (1903-1909), (London; Smith, Elder, 1914) p. 26.

  42 For the involvement of the bank with the papacy and the role of Ernesto Pacelli see: John F Pollard, Money and the Rise of the Modern Papacy: Financing the Vatican, 1850-1950 (Cambridge; Cambridge University Press, 2005) pp. 65-78. For Eugenio Pacelli see: Richard A Webster, The Cross and the Fasces: Christian Democracy and Fascism in Italy (Stanford, CA; Stanford University Press, 1960) p. 29. Manus I Midlarsky, The Killing Trap: Genocide in the Twentieth Century (Cambridge; Cambridge University Press, 2005) p. 220. See also: Peter Hertner, ‘Modern Banking in Italy’ in European Association for Banking History, Handbook on the History of European Banks (Aldershot, UK; Edward Elgar, 1994) pp. 631, 635.

  43 Richard A Webster (Trans. Mariangela Chiabrando), L’imperialismo industriale italiano 1908-1915: Studio sul prefascismo (Turin; Giulio Einaudi, 1974) p. 213. See also Luigi De Rosa, Storia del Banco di Roma (Rome; Banco di Roma, 1982) Vol. I, Chapter 5.

  44 Luigi De Rosa, Storia del Banco di Roma (Rome; Banco di Roma, 1982) Vol. I, p. 252.

  45 Ali Abdullatif Ahmida, The Making of Modern Libya: State formation, Colonization, and Resistance, 1830-1932 (Albany, NY; State University of New York Press, 1994) p. 64.

  46 Charles Lapworth and Helen Zimmern, Tripoli and Young Italy (London; Stephen Swift, 1912) p. 69.

  47 Arthur Silva White, The Development of Africa (London; George Philip, 1890) p. 221. For details of Italian investments see: Eugene A Staley, War and the Private Investor: A Study in the Relations of International Politics and International Private Investment (Garden City, NY; Doubleday Doran, 1935) pp. 62-70.

  48 Charles Wellington Furlong, The Gateway to the Sahara: Observations and Experiences in Tripoli (New York; Charles Scribner’s Sons, 1909) p. 171.

  49 Francis McCullagh, Italy’s War for a Desert: Being Some Experiences of a War-Correspondent with the Italians in Tripoli (London; Herbert & Daniel, 1913) p. 18.

  50 Gioacchino Volpe, Italia moderna: Volume III 1910-1914 (Firenze; Le lettere, 2002) p. 81

  51 Charles Wellington Furlong was an explorer, anthropologist, painter, teacher, writer, lecturer, and soldier. His papers are held at the Rauner Special Collections Library, Dartmouth College, Hanover, NH. http://ead.dartmouth.edu/html/stem197.html

  52 Charles Wellington Furlong, The Gateway to the Sahara: Observations and Experiences in Tripoli (New York; Charles Scribner’s Sons, 1909) pp. 181-2.

  53 Charles Wellington Furlong, The Gateway to the Sahara: Observations and Experiences in Tripoli (New York; Charles Scribner’s Sons, 1909) p. 32.

  54 Charles Wellington Furlong, The Gateway to the Sahara: Observations and Experiences in Tripoli (New York; Charles Scribner’s Sons, 1909) pp. 39-40.

  55 Arthur Silva White, Fellow of the Royal Society of Edinburgh, was the first secretary of the Royal Scottish Geographical Society and editor of the Scottish Geographical Magazine. See: David N Livingstone, ‘Tropical Climate and Moral Hygiene: The Anatomy of a Victorian Debate’ in The British Journal for the History of Science, 1999, Volume 32, pp. 93-110; Dalvan M. Coger, ‘Africana in the Scottish Geographical Magazine, 1885-1914’ in African Studies Bulletin, Vol. 9, No. 3 (December 1966), pp. 88-102.

  56 Arthur Silva White, The Development of Africa (London; George Philip, 1890) p. 62.

  57 Arthur Silva White, The Development of Africa (London; George Philip, 1890) pp. 221-2.

  58 Charles Wellington Furlong, The Gateway to the Sahara: Observations and Experiences in Tripoli (New York; Charles Scribner’s Sons, 1909) p. 296. Furlong was prescient; large reserves of fossil water fairly near the surface were serendipitously discovered in Libya during the 1950’s whilst drilling for oil. Omar Salem, ‘Management of Shared Groundwater Basins in Libya’ in African Water JournalVolume I, Number 1, March 2007, pp. 106-117. Patrick E Tyler, ‘Libya’s Vast Pipe Dream Taps Into Desert’s Ice Age Water’ in The New York Times, 2 March 2004.

  59 Douglas J Forsyth, The Crisis of Liberal Italy: Monetary and Financial Policy, 1914-1922 (Cambridge; Cambridge University Press, 1993) p. 47.

  60 Timothy W Childs, Italo-Turkish Diplomacy and the War over Libya, 1911-1912 (Leiden; E J Brill, 1990) p. 32. Francesco Malgeri, La Guerra Libica 1911-1912 (Roma; Edizioni di storia e letteratura, 1970) pp. 15-20.

  61 Eugene A Staley, War and the Private Investor: A Study in the Relations of International Politics and International Private Investment (Garden City, NY; Doubleday Doran, 1935) p. 67.

  62 Louis Leo Snyder, Historic Documents of World War I (Westport, CT; Greenwood Press, 1977) p. 44.

  63 Statement by San Giuliano of 24 September 1910. Quoted in Charles Lapworth and Helen Zimmern, Tripoli and Young Italy (London; Stephen Swift, 1912) pp. 66-7. Also quoted in part, without attribution, in: Paolo De Vecchi, Italy’s Civilizing Mission in Africa (New York, Brentano’s, 1912) p. 27

  64 Adrian Lyttelton (Ed. and Intro), Italian Fascisms from Pareto to Gentile(New York; Harper & Row, 1975) pp. 146-7. Martin Blinkhorn, Fascism and the Right in Europe, 1919-1945 (Harlow; Pearson Education, 2000) p. 120.

  65 Mussolini opined in a similar manner: ‘War alone keys up all human energies to their maximum tension and sets the seal of nobility on those peoples who have the courage to face it.’ He is also recorded, whilst at a conference with Hitler at the Brenner Pass on 18 March 1940, as stating that ‘To make a people great it is necessary to send them to battle […].’ He added, ‘even if you have to kick them in the backside.’ Benito Mussolini, Fascism: Doctrine and Institutions (Rome; Ardita, 1935) p. 19; Hugh Gibson, The Ciano Diaries, 1939-1943: The Complete, Unabridged Diaries of Count Galeazzo Ciano, Italian Minister for Foreign Affairs, 1936-1943 (Garden City, NY; Doubleday, 1946) pp. 235-6.

  66 See: Giulio Benedetti, Enrico Corradini; Profilo (Piacenza; Presso la Società tipografica editoriale Porta, 1922). For an overview of the rise of nationalism up to the outbreak of war in 1911 see: Salvatore Saladino, ‘Italy’ in Hans Rogger and Eugen Weber (Eds.), The European Right: a Historical Profile (Berkeley, CA; University of California Press, 1974) pp. 208-240.

  67 Bosworth. pp. 143-5.

  68 Ronald S Cunsolo, ‘Libya, Italian Nationalism, and the Revolt against Giolitti’ in The Journal of Modern History, 37, June 1965. p. 189.

  69 Ronald S Cunsolo, ‘Libya, Italian Nationalism, and the Revolt against Giolitti’ in The Journal of Modern History, 37, June 1965. p. 190.

  70 Bosworth. p. 145. Alan Cassels, Fascist Italy (Arlington Heights, IL; H Davidson, 1985) p. 9.

  71 The Times, 30 September 1911

  72 Bosworth. p. 149.

  73 Mark I Choate, Emigrant Nation: The Making of Italy Abroad (Cambridge, MA; Harvard University Press, 2008) p. 168.

  74 Ciro Paoletti, A Military History of Italy (Westport, CT; Praeger Security International, 2008) p. 134.

  75 Timothy W Childs, Italo-Turkish Diplomacy and the Wa
r over Libya, 1911-1912 (Leiden; E J Brill) p. 39.

  76 Bosworth. p. 150.

  77 Timothy W Childs, Italo-Turkish Diplomacy and the War over Libya, 1911-1912 (Leiden; E J Brill) p. 36.

  78 For a detailed study of the affair see: Geoffrey Barraclough, From Agadir to Armageddon: Anatomy of a Crisis (New York; Holmes & Meier, 1982). Also: Ima C Barlow, The Agadir Crisis (Hamden CT; Archon Books, 1971).

  79 Memorandum by Kiderlen-Wächter, 3 May 1911. in E T S Dugdale (Selected and Trans.) German Diplomatic Documents, 1871-1914.Vol. IV The Descent to the Abyss, 1911-14 (London: Methuen, 1931) pp. 2-4.

  80 Edward Crankshaw, The Fall of the House of Hapsburg (New York; Viking, 1963) p. 369.

  81 Konrad H Jarausch, The Enigmatic Chancellor: Bethmann Hollweg and the Hubris of Imperial Germany (New Haven CT; Yale University Press, 1973) p. 126.

  82 Roughly the area of the present-day Republic of the Congo, Gabon, Chad and the Central African Republic.

  83 Ernst Jäckh, (Ed.) Kiderlen-Wächter, der Staatsmann und Mensch: Briefwechsel und Nachlaß. Two Volumes (Stuttgart; Deutsche Verlags-Anstalt, 1924) Vol. II. p. 128.

  84 Winston S Churchill, The World Crisis 1911-1918Volume I (London; Odhams Press, 1938) p. 29.

  85 Sir James Rennell Rodd, Social and Diplomatic Memories, Third Series [Volume 3] 1902-1919 (London; Edward Arnold, 1925) p. 141.

  86 Charles Lapworth and Helen Zimmern, Tripoli and Young Italy (London; Steven Swift, 1912) pp. 18-19.

  87 Charles Lapworth and Helen Zimmern, Tripoli and Young Italy (London; Steven Swift, 1912) p. 92.

  88 Jay Spaulding and Lidwien Kapteijns, An Islamic Alliance:Ali Dinar and the Sanusiya, 1906-1916 (Evanston, IL; Northwestern University Press, 1994) p. 35.

  89 Ian Mugridge, The View from Xanadu: William Randolph Hearst and United States Foreign Policy (Montreal; McGill-Queen’s University Press, 1995) pp. 7-18. Denis Brian, Pulitzer: A Life (New York; John Wiley and Sons, 2001) pp. 2, 390.

  90 W Joseph Campbell, Yellow Journalism: Puncturing the Myths, Defining the Legacies (Westport, CT; Praeger, 2001) p. 97.

  91 Francesco Malgeri, La Guerra Libica 1911-1912 (Roma: Edizioni de Storia e Letteratura, 1970) p. 66.

  92 San Giulano to Giolotti and Victor Emmanuel III. 28 July 1911. Quoted in: Claudio Pavone, (ed.), Dalle carte di Giovanni Giolitti: Quarant’anni di politica italiana, Volume III, Dai prodromi della grande guerra al al fascismo (Milano; Feltrinelli 1962) pp. 52-56.

  93 Handan Nezir Akme e, The Birth of Modern Turkey: The Ottoman Military and the March to World War I (London; Tauris, 2005) p. 112. Lawrence Sondhaus, Naval Warfare, 1815-1914 (Abingdon; Routledge, 2001) p. 220. Robert Gardiner and Randal Gray (Eds.), Conway’s All the World’s Fighting Ships, 1906-1921 (Annapolis, MD; Naval Institute Press, 1985) p. 391. M J Whitley, Battleships of World War Two: An International Encyclopaedia (Annapolis, MD; Naval Institute Press, 1998) p. 237.

  94 See also: Theodore Ropp, ‘The Modern Italian Navy’ [since 1900] in Military Affairs, Vol. 5, No. 2 (Summer, 1941), pp. 104-116.

  95 Grey to Rodd. 28 July 1911. UK NA CAB 37/107/112.

  96 Grey to Lowther. 30 August 1911. UK NA CAB 37/107/112.

  97 Timothy W Childs, Italo-Turkish Diplomacy and the War over Libya, 1911-1912 (Leiden; E J Brill) p. 49.

  98 Giovanno Giolotti, Memorie della mia vita, con uno studio di Olindo Malagodi (Milano; Fratelli Treves, 1922) Volume II. pp. 335-7.

  99 Giovanno Giolotti, Memorie della mia vita, con uno studio di Olindo Malagodi (Milano; Fratelli Treves, 1922) Volume II. p. 334.

  100 Giovanno Giolotti, Memorie della mia vita, con uno studio di Olindo Malagodi (Milano; Fratelli Treves, 1922) Volume II. p. 327.

  101 Francesco Malgeri, La Guerra Libica 1911-1912 (Roma: Edizioni de Storia e Letteratura, 1970) pp. 126-7.

  102 Rodd to Grey. 4 September 1911. G P Gooch and H W V Temperley (Eds.), British Documents on the Origins of the War: 1898-1914, Vol. IX, The Balkan Wars, Part I, The Prelude: The Tripoli War (London; HMSO, 1933) pp. 267-8.

  103 Paolo Maltese, La terra promessa: La guerra italo-turca e la conquista della Libia 1911-12 (Milano; Mondadori, 1976) pp. 73-4; Francesco Malgeri, La Guerra Libica 1911-1912 (Roma: Edizioni de Storia e Letteratura, 1970) pp. 61-2.

  104 Francesco Malgeri, La Guerra Libica 1911-1912 (Roma: Edizioni de Storia e Letteratura, 1970) p. 131. R J B Bosworth, Italy the Least of the Great Powers: Italian Foreign Policy before the First. World War (London: Cambridge University Press, 1979) p. 160.

  105 Timothy W Childs, Italo-Turkish Diplomacy and the War over Libya, 1911-1912 (Leiden; E J Brill) p. 60.

  106 San Giulano to Giolotti. 2 September 1911. Quoted in: Claudio Pavone, (ed.), Dalle carte di Giovanni Giolitti: Quarant’anni di politica italiana, Volume III, Dai prodromi della grande guerra al al fascismo (Milano; Feltrinelli 1962) p. 59. Brian R Sullivan, ‘The Strategy of the Decisive Weight: Italy, 1882-1922’ in Williamson Murray, MacGregor Knox, and Alvin Bernstein (Eds.) The Making of Strategy: Rulers, States, and War (Cambridge; Cambridge University Press, 1994) p. 324.

  107 Timothy W Childs, Italo-Turkish Diplomacy and the War over Libya, 1911-1912 (Leiden; E J Brill) p. 60.

  108 Giovanno Giolotti, Memorie della mia vita, con uno studio di Olindo Malagodi (Milano; Fratelli Treves, 1922) Volume II. p. 355.

  109 Pansa to San Giuliano. 23 September 1911. Quoted in Timothy W Childs, Italo-Turkish Diplomacy and the War over Libya, 1911-1912 (Leiden; E J Brill) p. 62.

  110 Giovanno Giolotti, Memorie della mia vita, con uno studio di Olindo Malagodi (Milano; Fratelli Treves, 1922) Volume II. p. 357.

  111 David G Herrmann, The Arming of Europe and the Making of the First World War (Princeton, NJ; Princeton University Press, 1997) pp. 137-8.

  112 This documentation is contained in the Archivio dell’Ufficio Storico dello Stato Maggiore dell’Esercito: Carteggio Libia and was utilized by David G Herrmann for his groundbreaking work on Italian Strategy. See: David G Herrmann, ‘The Paralysis of Italian Strategy in the Italian-Turkish War, 1911-1912’ in The English Historical Review, Vol. 104, No. 411, April 1989. p. 335.

  113 Archivio dell’Ufficio Storico dello Stato Maggiore dell’Esercito: Carteggio Libia, 215/2: ‘Studio per l’occupazione della Tripolitania, Agosto I911.’ Campagna di Libia, Volume 1 p. 269.

  114 Giovanno Giolitti, Memorie della mia vita, con uno studio di Olindo Malagodi (Milano; Fratelli Treves, 1922) Volume II. p. 358.

  115 For a complete history up until 1918 see: Odoardo Marchetti, Il servizio informazione dell’esercito italiano nella grande Guerra (Roma; Tipografia Regionale, 1937).

  116 Giuseppe De Lutiis, Storia dei servizi segreti in Italia [History of the Secret Services in Italy] (Roma: Riuniti, 1984) p. 303.

  117 Giuseppe De Lutiis, Storia dei servizi segreti in Italia [History of the Secret Services in Italy] (Roma: Riuniti, 1984) p. 8. Marco Meini, Il decimo corridoio [The Tenth Corridor] (Roma: Robin, 2005) pp. 343-4. n. 8.

  118 Paolo Maltese, La terra promessa: La guerra italo-turca e la conquista della Libia 1911-12 (Milano; Mondadori, 1976) p. 85-6.

  119 San Giuliano circular telegram to Ambassadors at Berlin, London, Madrid, Paris, St. Petersburg and Vienna. 24 September 1911. Quoted in Francesco Malgeri, La Guerra Libica 1911-1912 (Roma; Edizioni di storia e letteratura, 1970) p. 106.

  120 The New York Times. 25 September 1911.

  121 W H Beehler, The History of the Italian-Turkish War, September 29, 1911, to October 18, 1912 (Annapolis, MD; William H Beehler, 1913) pp. 12-3. Childs. p. 25.

  122 William C Askew, Europe and Italy’s Acquisition of Libya, 1911-1912 (Durham, NC; Duke University Press, 1942) p. 55.

  123 Orhan Kolo lu, 500 Years In Turkish-Libyan Relations: SAM Paper 1/2007 (Ankara; Stratejik Arastirmalar Merkezi (SAM), 2007) p. 174.

  124 Timothy W Childs, Italo-Turkish Diplomacy and the War over Libya, 1911-1912 (Leiden; E J Brill) p. 64.

  125 Francesco Malgeri, La Guerra Libica 1911-1912 (Roma; Edizioni di storia e letteratura, 1970)
pp. 125, 138, 140.

  126 Timothy W Childs, Italo-Turkish Diplomacy and the War over Libya, 1911-1912 (Leiden; E J Brill) p. 64.

  127 Raymond Poincaré (Trans. Sir George Arthur), The Memoirs of Raymond Poincaré, Volume I: 1912 (London: William Heinemann, 1926) p. 19.

  128 Translation taken from: ‘Ultimatum from Italy to Turkey Regarding Tripoli’ in The American Journal of International Law, Volume 6, No. 1. Supplement: Official Documents (January 1912), pp. 11-12.

  129 The ‘surprise’ evinced by Hakki comes from an account by the well-connected Marquess Alberto Theodoli, the Italian delegate on the Ottoman Public Debt Council who had lived in Istanbul since 1905. Alberto Theodoli, ‘La preparazione dell’impresa di Tripoli. Ricordi di una missione in Turchia’ in Nuova Antologia, 16 July 1934. p. 242. His account is used by Childs and Del Boca: Timothy W Childs, Italo-Turkish Diplomacy and the War over Libya, 1911-1912 (Leiden; E J Brill) p. 66. Angelo Del Boca, Gli Italiani in Libia: Tripoli bel suol d’amore: 1860-1922, Vol. I (Millan; Mondadori, 1986) p. 73.

  130 Translation taken from: ‘The Turkish Reply to Italian Ultimatum Regarding Tripoli’ in The American Journal of International Law, Volume 6, No. 1. Supplement: Official Documents (January 1912). pp. 12-14.

  131 Sir Thomas Barclay, (With an Additional Chapter on Moslem Feeling by Ameer Ali), The Turco-Italian War and its Problems, with Appendices Containing the Chief State Papers Bearing on the Subject (London; Constable, 1912) pp. 112-13.

  CHAPTER FOUR

  1 Prime Minster Antonio Salandra on Italy’s entry into the Great War on the side of the Entente Powers. 23 May 1915. Charles F Horne, Walter F Austin and Leonard P Ayres (Eds.), Source Records of the Great War, Volume 3, AD 1915 (Indianapolis, IN; The American Legion, 1931) p. 224.

  2 Machiel Kiel, Ottoman Architecture in Albania, 1385-1912 (Istanbul; Research Centre for Islamic History, Art and Culture, 1990) p. 90.

  3 For a discussion on whether or not Bismarck said it: Charles Stephenson, Germany’s Asia-Pacific Empire: Colonialism and Naval Policy 1885–1914 (Woodbridge; Boydell Press, 2009) p. 220.