by Rod Ellis
communicative competence Communicative competence consists of the knowledge required to understand and produce messages in a language. Various models of communicative competence have been proposed, but most of them recognize that it entails both linguistic competence—for example, knowledge of grammatical rules—and pragmatic competence—for example, knowledge of what constitutes appropriate linguistic behaviour in a particular situation.
community of practice This refers to specific social groups—for example, classroom L2 learners or insurance-claim processors—that share a common set of social and linguistic practices related to a particular social domain—for example, a workplace or a classroom.
comparative fallacy Bley-Vroman (1983) referred to methods that seek to account for learner language solely in terms of target-language norms as inadequate because they fail to acknowledge that learners develop their own unique systems. He called this the comparative fallacy.
competence This term refers to a language user’s underlying knowledge of language, which is drawn on in actual performance. Theories of language vary in how they define competence.
Competition Model This is a functional model of language use and language acquisition (Bates and MacWhinney 1982). It views the task of language learning as that of discovering the particular form-function mappings that characterize the target language. These mappings are viewed as having varying ‘strengths’ in different languages. For example, in English, case is a relatively weak signal of agency, whereas in Russian, it is a strong signal. See also emergentism.
complex adaptive system Interlanguage is a complex adaptive system. In the sense that it emerges gradually, driven by the exemplars learners are exposed to in social interaction, which are processed by general cognitive mechanisms. A complex adaptive system is comprised of a number of interconnected systems which develop unevenly at different points in time during L2 development.
complexity Language is complex when there is of a range of vocabulary and grammatical structures used. A common measure of the grammatical complexity of language is the amount of subordination used.
Complexity Theory Complexity Theory views all systems as complex and constantly adaptive involving interactions among the many components that comprise the system. Complexity Theory has been applied to L2 acquisition by Larsen-Freeman.
comprehensible input Input that can be understood by a learner has been referred to as ‘comprehensible input’ (Krashen 1985). Input can be made comprehensible in various ways: through simplification, with the help of context, or by negotiating non-understanding and misunderstanding. Krashen considers comprehensible input a necessary condition for L2 acquisition.
Comprehensible Output Hypothesis ‘Output’ is language produced by the learner. It can be comprehensible or incomprehensible to an interlocutor. Swain (1985) has proposed that when learners make efforts to ensure that their output is comprehensible—i.e. produce pushed output—acquisition may be fostered.
comprehension-based instruction This is an approach to teaching a language through input rather than through production. It consists of listening and reading activities that expose learners to input and facilitate acquisition of the L2. See input processing instruction.
concept-based instruction This is a type of explicit instruction that emphasizes the importance of providing detailed descriptions of grammatical features through charts and diagrams and asking learners to verbalize the metalinguistic information as they perform oral and written practice activities.
conceptual transfer This addresses how an L1-specific world view affects the acquisition of another language. That is, transfer effects are seen as not just linguistic but as reflecting the underlying ways in which learners perceive and conceptualize the world.
connectionist theories Connectionist accounts of L2 learning view language as an elaborative neural network rather than as a set of rules. The network changes over time as a response to input frequencies and productive use of l2 features. The underlying assumption is that L2 learning is a complex phenomenon but can be accounted for by a relatively simple mental mechanism that is not specific to language learning.
Consciousness-raising Instruction This is a type of explicit instruction designed to help learners understand a grammatical structure and learn it as explicit knowledge. That is, in this kind of instruction there are no practice activities.
constructions Constructions are ‘recurrent patterns of linguistic elements that serve some well-defined linguistic function’ (N. Ellis 2003: 66). They can be at sentence level or below. Emergentist accounts of L2 acquisition view acquisition as a process of internalizing and subsequently analysing constructions. See also formulaic sequences.
Contrastive Analysis Hypothesis According to the Contrastive Analysis Hypothesis, L2 errors are the result of differences between the L1 and the L2. The strong form of the hypothesis claims that these differences can be used to predict all errors that will occur. The weak form of the hypothesis claims that these differences can be used only to identify some out of all the errors that actually occur.
conversational analysis (CA) CA is a method for analysing social interactions in order to uncover their orderliness, structure, and sequential patterns. CA is used to investigate both institutional interactions (i.e. in the school, doctor’s surgery, or law court) and casual conversation. Key aspects of interaction studied in CA are turn-taking and repair.
corrective feedback In language acquisition, the term ‘feedback’ refers to information given to learners which they can use to revise their interlanguage. A distinction is often made between ‘positive’ and ‘negative’ feedback—sometimes referred to as negative evidence. Corrective feedback can be implicit or explicit and also input-providing or output-prompting.
Critical Period Hypothesis This states that there is a period—i.e. up to a certain age—during which learners can acquire an L2 easily and achieve native-speaker competence, but that after this period L2 acquisition becomes more difficult and is rarely—if ever—entirely successful. Researchers differ over the span of this critical period.
declarative knowledge Declarative knowledge is characterized by Anderson (1983) as ‘knowledge that’. In the case of L2 acquisition it consists of explicit knowledge of L2 grammatical rules.
deductive instruction Deductive instruction involves providing learners with an explicit rule which they then practise in one way or another. It contrasts with inductive instruction.
detection Detection is the cognitive registration of information in short-term memory. It can be seen as the first stage in a theory of attention.
discourse competence This refers to the ability to participate in coherent and cohesive conversations.
Discourse Hypothesis The discourse hypothesis states that speakers will systematically distinguish between foregrounded and backgrounded information when performing a narrative.
Dual-Mode Model/System Skehan (1998) proposed that a person’s knowledge of language (first and second) is comprised of two distinct systems—a rule-based system and a memory-based system where ‘exemplars’ are stored. These systems are drawn on differentially depending on whether the speaker prioritizes complexity, accuracy, or fluency.
dynamic assessment This term refers to a mode of assessment that has ‘the expressed goal of modifying learner performance during the assessment itself’ (Poehner and Lantolf 2005: 235) as opposed to obtaining a static measure of a learner’s proficiency without feedback or intervention of any kind.
Dynamic Paradigm The Dynamic Paradigm figures in sociolinguistic studies of L2 variability. It seeks to account for variation in terms of the evolving form-function systems that characterize interlanguage development.
Dynamic Systems Theory This theory views interlanguage as a complex adaptive system involving complete interconnectedness; that is ‘all variables are interrelated and therefore changes in one variable will have an impact on all other variables that are part of the system’ (de Bot, Lowie, and Versp
oor 2007: 8). The theory claims that much of the variation evident in learner language is chaotic and acquisition is non-linear.
emergentism In the context of SLA, emergentism refers to theories that assume that language use and acquisition are usage-based—driven, in particular by the frequency of linguistic forms in the input. An example of an emergentist theory is the Competition Model.
enhanced input Input can be enhanced in several ways—by including frequent use of the target feature in the input or by highlighting it through intonation in the case of oral input, or making it bold or italicizing the feature in the case of written input. Enhanced input is intended to facilitate noticing of the target feature and thus increase the chance of learning.
exemplar-based system This is an L2 system comprised of ready-made chunks—i.e. sequences of sounds, words, and grammatical inflections—as opposed to generative rules. See formulaic sequences.
explicit correction This is a type of feedback that provides the learner with the correct form while at the same time indicating that an error was committed.
explicit instruction Explicit instruction involves ‘some sort of rule being thought about during the learning process’ (DeKeyser 1995). That is, learners are encouraged to develop metalinguistic awareness of the rule. This can be achieved by means of deductive instruction or inductive instruction. Explicit L2 knowledge is declarative knowledge—i.e. knowledge of rules—which learners are able to report. Explicit L2 knowledge is closely linked to metalinguistic knowledge. It contrasts with implicit knowledge.
explicit learning Explicit learning is a conscious process that is also likely to be intentional. It can be investigated by giving learners an explicit rule and asking them to apply it to data or by inviting them to try to discover an explicit rule from data provided.
eye-tracking In eye-tracking research, an eye-tracking machine is used to plot the movement of the eyes across a written text, documenting the fixations and regressions that occur. It has been used to investigate the cognitive processes involved when reading a text.
fluency Various definitions exist. Skehan (1996: 22) defines it as concerning ‘the learner’s capacity to produce language in real time without undue pausing or hesitation’. A common measure of fluency is the number of syllables per minute.
focus-on-form Focus-on-form ‘overtly draws students’ attention to linguistic elements as they arise incidentally in lessons whose overriding focus is on meaning or communication (Long 1991: pp. 456).
focus-on-forms Focus-on-forms is a traditional approach to grammar teaching based on a structural syllabus. The underlying assumption is that language learning is a process of accumulating distinct entities one at a time. It involves explicit instruction.
foreign language acquisition A number of researchers distinguish ‘foreign language acquisition’—for example, the learning of French in schools in the United States—and ‘second language acquisition’—for example, the learning of English by speakers of other languages in the United States.
foreigner talk When native speakers address learners, they adjust their normal speech in order to facilitate understanding. These adjustments, which involve both language form and function, constitute ‘foreigner talk’. Foreigner talk has been hypothesized to aid L2 acquisition in a number of ways—for example, by making certain features more salient to the learner.
form-function mapping When learners acquire an L2 they need to identify which functions (grammatical, semantic, or pragmatic) map onto which linguistic forms—a process called form-function mapping. It is investigated by identifying all instances of a specific linguistic form in the data and the different meanings realized by this form and how the form-function mappings change over time.
form-focused instruction Form-focused instruction involves some attempt to focus learners’ attention on specific properties of the L2 so that they will learn them. Different types of form-focused instruction can be distinguished, including explicit instruction and implicit instruction.
formulaic sequences Wray (2000: 465) gives the following definition:
A sequence, continuous or discontinuous, of words or other meaning elements, which is, or appears to be, prefabricated; that is stored and retrieved whole from memory at the time of use, rather than being subject to generation or analysis by the language grammar.
fossilization Selinker (1972) noted that most L2 learners fail to reach target-language competence. That is, they stop learning while their internalized rule systems differ from that those of the target system—i.e. they fossilize. Fossilization can also be viewed as a cognitive process whereby new learning is blocked by existing learning. It remains a controversial construct with some researchers arguing that there is never a complete cessation of learning.
free variation When a speaker uses two or more variants of a variable structure randomly—for example, selects variants without reference to the linguistic or situational context—free variation occurs. Free variation can arise when learners acquire a new form and use it side by side with a previously acquired form to realize the same meaning.
frequency analysis This is the method of analysing learner language that involves identifying the variants of a given structure and examining the frequency of occurrence of each variant. For example, a learner may make negative utterances using (1) ‘no’ + verb, (2) ‘don’t’ + verb and (3) auxiliary + verb. A frequency analysis of the negative utterances produced by this learner would involve counting each occurrence of the three variants at a particular point in L2 development.
good language learner Researchers have investigated the individual learner factors that contribute to L2 learning by investigating what expert, successful L2 learners do in order to learn an L2. These studies are known as the ‘good language learner studies’.
Gradual Diffusion Model Gatbonton’s (1978) Gradual Diffusion Model identifies two broad phases in L2 acquisition: an ‘acquisition phase’, characterized by free variation, and a ‘development phase’ where free variation gives way to systematic variation and categorical language use.
grammaticality judgement test One way of obtaining data on what learners know about specific grammatical structures is by asking them to judge whether sentences containing grammatical and ungrammatical versions of these structures are correct or incorrect.
horizontal variability This refers to the variation evident in learner language at a particular moment or stage in a learner’s development. It contrasts with vertical variability. See also frequency analysis.
immersion programme In immersion education programmes the L2 is taught by using it as the medium of instruction for teaching the content of other school subjects. Immersion education has been widely used in Canada and has now spread to other countries.
implicit instruction Implicit instruction is directed at enabling learners to learn an L2 incidentally by attracting their attention to linguistic forms while they are primarily focused on meaning. There is no direct explanation of the target feature and in this respect it contrasts with explicit instruction.
implicit L2 knowledge Implicit knowledge of a language is knowledge that is intuitive and tacit. It cannot be directly reported. The knowledge that most speakers have of their L1 is implicit. The study of linguistic competence is the study of a speaker-hearer’s implicit knowledge of a language. See also explicit L2 knowledge.
implicit L2 learning Implicit learning is typically defined as learning that takes place without either intentionality or awareness. It can be investigated by exposing learners to input data, which they are asked to process for meaning. Evidence of implicit learning is obtained if it can be shown that they have acquired some linguistic property even when they cannot report they have learned it.
incidental L2 learning This refers to learning of some specific feature that takes place without any deliberate intention to learn it. It can, however, involve consciousness—for example when learners notice a specific feature in the input. It is investigated by giving learne
rs a task that focuses their attention on one aspect of the L2 and, without pre-warning, testing on some other feature.
individual learner differences (IDs) The term ‘individual learner differences’ refers to the differences in how learners learn an L2, in how fast they learn, and in how successful they are. These differences include both psychological factors such as language learning aptitude and motivation, and specific learning strategies.
inductive instruction Inductive instruction is a form of explicit instruction that involves asking learners to induce rules from examples given to them or simply by practising the use of the rules. It contrasts with deductive instruction.
information-processing model An information processing model views the individual as processing information from input, storing it in memory and then drawing on the stored information in output. Individuals are seen as functioning in much the same way as a computer.
initiate-respond-follow up (IRF) exchange The IRF exchange is a familiar pattern in classroom talk. It typically consists of the teacher initiating the exchange, the student responding, and the teacher following up on the student’s response.
Input Hypothesis The Input Hypothesis was advanced by Krashen (1985) to explain how ‘acquisition’ takes place. It states that ‘we acquire … only when we understand language that contains a structure that is ‘a little beyond where we are now’ (1982: 21). Krashen has referred to the idea of input that is ‘a little bit beyond’ as ‘i + 1’.
Input Processing Principles VanPatten (1996) proposed that because learners have a limited working memory capacity they process input in accordance with a set of principles that allocate attention selectively to input. An example of such a principle is ‘Learners process input for meaning before they process it for form’. These principles account for why learners make specific errors and why they have difficulty in learning some grammatical structures.
instrumental motivation See motivation.