by Rod Ellis
instrumental orientation Learners have an instrumental orientation when they wish to learn an L2 for functional purposes—for example, to pass an examination or obtain a job—or to please other people—for example, parents.
intake Intake is that portion of the input that learners notice and therefore process in their working memory. Intake may subsequently be accommodated in the learner’s interlanguage system—i.e. become part of long-term memory.
integrated instruction This is a type of explicit instruction where the explicit explanation of the target feature is embedded into the practice activities rather than provided prior to the practice. See also isolated instruction.
integration Integration is a general term that refers to the cognitive processes involved in storing items that have been noticed and processed into long-term memory. These processes involve modification of learners’ interlanguage systems. See also restructuring.
integrative orientation A learner has an integrative orientation when the reason for learning is a genuine interest in coming closer psychologically with individuals who speak the language. See also motivation.
intelligence Intelligence is the general set of cognitive abilities involved in a wide range of tasks. It constitutes ‘a general sort of aptitude that is not limited to a specific performance area but is transferable to many sorts of performance’ (Dörnyei 2005: 32).
intentional learning Intentional acquisition/learning takes place when learners make a conscious and deliberate attempt to learn a new L2 item or feature. Explicit instruction caters to intentional learning.
interactional competence Interactional competence consists of the knowledge of how to interact in specific situations – for example, in service encounters, in language proficiency interviews, and in pharmacist-patient consultations. It includes knowing how to produce and interpret turns and actions and how to repair any ‘trouble’ that arises.
interaction approach In the interaction approach researchers investigate L2 acquisition by examining what happens ‘when learners encounter input, are involved in interaction, receive feedback and produce output’ (Gass and Mackey 2007: 176).
Interaction Hypothesis The Interaction Hypothesis claims that ‘negotiation for meaning, and especially negotiation work that triggers interactional adjustments by the NS or more competent interlocutor, facilitates acquisition because it connects input, internal learner capacities, particularly selective attention, and output in productive ways’ (Long 1996: 451–2).
international posture This is defined as ‘a general attitude towards the international community that influences English learning and communication’ (Yashima 2002).
interactionally modified input This is input that is modified by the learner as a result of the negotiation of meaning or negotiation of form. It contrasts with premodified input.
interface position/hypothesis Theories of L2 acquisition that emphasize the distinctiveness of implicit and explicit knowledge can either maintain that these are completely separate, or that each knowledge type ‘leaks’, so that explicit knowledge can become implicit and vice-versa. This latter position is known as the ‘strong interface position’. See also non-interface position and skill-building hypothesis.
interference According to behaviourist learning theory, old habits get in the way of learning new habits. Thus, in L2 learning the L1 interferes with the learning the L2—i.e. results in negative transfer. See also language transfer.
interlanguage Selinker (1972) coined the term ‘interlanguage’ to refer to the systematic knowledge of an L2 which is independent of both these learner’s L1 and the target language. The term has come to be used with different but related meanings: (1) to refer to the series of interlocking systems which characterize acquisition, (2) to refer to the system that is observed at a single stage of development (‘an interlanguage’), and (3) to refer to particular L1/L2 combinations—for example, L1 French/L2 English versus L1 Japanese/L2 English.
internalization A term used in sociocultural theory to refer to the process by which a person moves from other-regulation to self-regulation. Ohta (2001) referred to this as ‘the movement of language from environment to brain’ (p. 11).
intrinsic motivation This refers to the motivation that derives from a learner’s own curiosity about the target language or the interest generated by participating in a language-learning activity. It is closely linked to the idea of self-determination in language learning.
isolated instruction This is a type of explicit instruction where the explanation of the target feature is provided prior to the practice activities as in traditional presentation-practice-production (PPP) instruction. It contrasts with integrated instruction.
L2 Motivational Self System This is a comprehensive theory of motivation that distinguishes three primary components: (1) the ideal-self—i.e. the extent to which learners see themselves as possible successful language learners—(2) the ought-to self—i.e. the extent to which learners consider they ought to learn the L2—and (3) the learners’ L2 learning experiences.
language acquisition device Mentalist theories of language acquisition emphasize the importance of the innate capacity of the language learner at the expense of environmental factors. Each learner is credited with a ‘language acquisition device’ (LAD), which directs the process of acquisition. This device contains information about the possible form that the grammar of any language can take. See Universal Grammar.
language analytical ability This is one the abilities involved in language aptitude. It refers to the ability to identify grammatical patterns and the grammatical functions of words in sentences.
language anxiety Different types of anxiety have been identified: (1) trait anxiety—a characteristic of a learner’s personality—(2) state anxiety—apprehension that is experienced at a particular moment in response to a definite situation—and (3) situation-specific anxiety—the anxiety aroused by a particular type of situation. Language anxiety is a type of situation-specific anxiety. It can be both facilitating—i.e. it has a positive effect on L2 acquisition—or debilitating—i.e. it has a negative effect.
language aptitude It has been hypothesized that people possess a special ability for learning an L2. Language aptitude is considered to be separate from the general ability to master academic skills, often referred to as intelligence. It is one of the factors that characterize individual learner differences. Various tests have been designed to measure language-learning aptitude, for example, the Modern Language Aptitude Test.
language distance This refers to fact that differences between the learner’s L1 and L2 varies. For example, the distance between Japanese (L2) and Korean (L1) is much less than that between Japanese (L2) and English (L1). This can affect the extent to which L1 transfer occurs.
language-related episodes Swain (1998) defined a language-related episode (LRE) as ‘any part of a dialogue in which students talk about the language they are producing, question their language use, or other- or self-correct’ (p. 70).
language socialization Schieffelin and Ochs (1986) defined language socialization as the practice by which novices in a community are socialized both to the language forms and, through language, to the values, behaviours, and practices of the community in which they live. Thus, it entails ‘socialization through the use of language and socialization to use language’ (p. 163).
language transfer Odlin (1989) gives this ‘working definition’ of ‘transfer’: Transfer is the influence resulting from similarities and differences between the target language and any other language that has been previously (and perhaps imperfectly) acquired (p. 27).
Two types of transfer are commonly identified: negative transfer (resulting in errors) and positive transfer (resulting in correct use of the L2).
languaging This refers to the use of language to mediate cognitively complex acts of thinking. It is ‘the process of making meaning and shaping knowledge and experience through language’ (Swain 2006). According to soci
ocultural theory, languaging is indicative of learning in progress.
learner varieties See basic variety
learning strategy A learning strategy is a device or procedure used by learners to develop their interlanguages. Learning strategies account for how learners acquire and automatize L2 knowledge. They are also used to refer to how they develop specific skills. It is possible, therefore, to talk of both ‘language-learning strategies’ and ‘skill-learning strategies’. Learning strategies can be subdivided into cognitive, metacognitive, and social/affective strategies.
Levelt’s Model of Speaking Levelt (1989) proposed that speech production could be accounted for in terms of four overlapping operations: (1) conceptualization; (2) formulation; (3) articulation; and (4) monitoring. His model has been used in studies that have investigated the effects of planning on L2 performance.
Limited Resources Model A limited resources model is premised on the assumption that people have limited processing capacity. Skehan (1998) suggested that because of this L2 learners will have difficulty focusing on meaning and form at the same time and also are likely to prioritize either accuracy or complexity but not both. See also Trade-off Hypothesis.
Linguistic Coding Difference Hypothesis This claims that native language skills play an important role in the success or failure of L2 learning. Learners who have limitations in their native language are predicted to encounter difficulties in learning an L2.
linguistic competence Researchers who work within the theoretical framework developed by Chomsky consider it necessary to distinguish competence and performance. Linguistic competence refers to the knowledge of the rules that comprise the grammar of a language.
linguistic markedness See markedness.
markedness Various definitions of linguistic markedness exist. The term refers to the idea that some linguistic structures are ‘special’ or ‘less natural’ or ‘less basic’ than others. For example, the use of ‘break’ in ‘she broke my heart’ can be considered marked in relation to the use of ‘break’ in ‘she broke a cup’. SLA researchers are interested in markedness because it can help to account for language transfer.
Markedness Differential Hypothesis This is a hypothesis advanced by Eckman (1977). It makes use of ‘markedness’ to explain why some L1 forms are transferred while others are not. It claims that learners transfer target-language features that are less marked than equivalent features in their L1 but do not transfer those that are more marked.
mediation This is a term used in sociocultural SLA. Mediation in second language learning includes (1) mediation by others in social interaction, (2) mediation by self through private speech, and (3) mediation by artefacts (for example, tasks and technology).
meta-analysis A meta-analysis is a form of research synthesis. It involves investigating a large number of studies that have investigated the same phenomenon—for example, the effect of instruction on learning—and then calculating statistically the overall effect based on the effects reported in the different studies.
metacognitive strategy Many L2 learners are able to think consciously about how they learn. Metacognitive strategies involve planning learning, monitoring the process of learning, and evaluating how successful a particular strategy is.
Modern Language Aptitude Test This is a test developed by Carroll and Sapon (1959) that measured the different abilities involved in language-learning aptitude including phonemic coding ability, language analytical ability, and memory.
modified output Modified output occurs when learners modify their own previous utterance. This may occur following feedback or as a result of self-correction. The modification may occur immediately following the original utterance or feedback or some turns later. It may involve repair of an initial error or some other change.
monitoring Both native speakers and learners typically try to correct any ‘mistakes’ they make. This is referred to as ‘monitoring’. The learner can monitor vocabulary, grammar, phonology, or discourse. Krashen (1981) uses the term ‘Monitoring’ (with a capital ‘M’) to refer to the way learners use explicit knowledge to edit utterances generated by means of implicit knowledge.
morpheme studies In the 1970s a number of researchers investigated the acquisition of a group of English morphemes—for example, verb + -ing, verb + ed and third-person-s—with a view to determining their order of acquisition. These studies, which were both cross-sectional and longitudinal, were known as ‘morpheme studies’.
Morphological Congruency Hypothesis This claims that when a grammatical morpheme with the same function is present in both the native and target languages, language learning will easier than when it is present in the target language but not in the native language.
motivation In general terms, motivation refers to the effort that learners put into learning an L2 as a result of their need or desire to learn it. Gardner and Lambert (1972) distinguished instrumental motivation and integrative motivation. Other types of motivation have also been identified, including (1) intrinsic motivation and (2) attributional motivation. Dörnyei developed a theory of motivation—the L2 Motivational Self System—that incorporates a range of motivational constructs.
multicompetence Cook (2002) proposed the idea of ‘multicompetence’ to refer to knowledge of two or more languages in the same mind. One implication of this is that the linguistic competence of bi- or multi-linguals differs from that of monolinguals.
Natural Approach The Natural Approach is based on Krashen’s Input Hypothesis. It is an approach to teaching a second/ foreign language that emphasizes comprehensible input rather than production practice in order to foster ‘acquisition’ as opposed to ‘learning’.
negative evidence Long (1996: 413) defined negative evidence as input that provides ‘direct or indirect evidence of what is ungrammatical’.
negative transfer See interference.
negotiation of form This occurs in interaction when there is no communication difficulty but negotiation still occurs—i.e. when the problem is entirely linguistic. It is uncommon in conversational interaction—although sometimes learners do request it—but has been shown to occur often in some classroom contexts.
negotiation of meaning Communication involving L2 learners often leads to problems in understanding and communication breakdown. Frequently, one or more of the participants—the learner or the interlocutor—attempts to remedy this by engaging in interactional work to secure mutual understanding. This work is often called ‘negotiation of meaning’. It is characterized by interactional modifications such as comprehension checks and requests for clarification.
neuropsychological SLA This aims to correlate cognitive operations with neural functioning. Researchers attempt to show the locations and the neural circuits in the brain that are linked to the formation and consolidation of memories for language.
non-interface position/hypothesis Theories of L2 acquisition which emphasize the distinctiveness of explicit and implicit knowledge and which claim that one type of knowledge cannot be converted directly into the other type adopt a ‘non-interface position’. See also interface position.
noticing This is a cognitive process whereby linguistic exemplars in the input that learners are exposed to are consciously attended to. It takes place in working memory.
Noticing Hypothesis The strong version of the hypothesis claims that learners will only learn what they consciously attend to in the input. The weak version allows for the representation and storage of unattended stimuli in memory but claims that ‘people learn about the things they attend to and do not learn much about the things they do not attend to’ (Schmidt 2001).
noticing-the-gap This is a cognitive process whereby learners notice the difference between their own erroneous output and target-like input. It involves making a cognitive comparison in working memory.
obligatory occasion analysis This involves identifying contexts that require the obligatory use of a specific grammatical feature in samples of learner language and ca
lculating the accuracy with which the feature is supplied in these contexts. See also target-like use analysis.
online planning Online planning is a term used in task-based research to refer to the planning that learners do while they are performing a task. It contrasts with pre-task planning.
order of acquisition A number of studies of L2 acquisition—for example, the morpheme studies—have produced evidence to suggest that learners achieve mastery of grammatical features in a particular order irrespective of their L1 or their age. For example, verb + –ing has been found to be mastered before verb + -ed.
other-regulation This is a term used in sociocultural theory to refer to the help that learners are given by others—for example, a teacher or another learner—to perform a particular task which they are not yet able to perform by themselves. Other-regulation serves to help learners develop self-regulation. See also zone of proximal development.
Output Hypothesis See comprehensible output hypothesis.
overgeneralization Language learners in both L1 and L2 acquisition produce errors like ‘comed’. These can be explained as extensions of some general rule to items not covered by this rule in the target language.
overshadowing Overshadowing in L2 learning occurs when two linguistic cues are associated with a single meaning and the more subjectively salient of the two cues overshadows the weaker. As overshadowing continues over time, blocking results—i.e. learners learn to selectively attend to only the more salient of the two cues.
performance This term refers to the actual use of language in either comprehension or production. It contrasts with competence.
phonological short-term memory This refers to a person’s ability to retain chunks of speech in their working memory for a short period of time. Common tests for this include the non-word repetition and memory span for words and numerals.
positive evidence ‘Models of what is grammatical and acceptable’ (Long 1996: 413).
positive transfer According to behaviourist accounts of L2 acquisition, learners will have no difficulty in learning L2 patterns when these are the same as L1 patterns. Support for positive transfer occurs when it can be shown that learners acquire L2 features which are the same as or similar to L1 features with little difficulty.