15. Beaujard, Mondes, vol. 1, pp. 527–8, 538–43, 549–51, 553–8; Randrianja and Ellis, Madagascar, pp. 29, 35.
16. Beaujard, Mondes, vol. 1, p. 538; Randrianja and Ellis, Madagascar, p. 22.
17. A. Sherriff, Dhow Cultures of the Indian Ocean: Cosmopolitanism, Commerce and Islam (London and Zanzibar, 2010), pp. 197–9.
18. Beaujard, Mondes, vol. 1, pp. 525, 530.
19. Ibid., p. 553; Randrianja and Ellis, Madagascar, p. 20.
20. Sherriff, Dhow Cultures, p. 199.
21. Beaujard, Mondes, vol. 1, pp. 530–31.
22. Hall, Maritime Trade and State Development, p. 28.
23. C. C. Brown, ed., Sĕjarah Mĕlayu, or ‘Malay Annals’ (2nd edn, Kuala Lumpur and Singapore, 1970).
24. For example, Dionysios Periegetes, whose map is reconstructed in P. Wheatley, The Golden Khersonese: Studies in the Historical Geography of the Malay Peninsula before AD 1500 (Kuala Lumpur, 1961), p. 131.
25. T. Suárez, Early Mapping of Southeast Asia (Hong Kong and Singapore, 1999), pp. 62–3.
26. For gold of Ophir see also D. C. West and A. Kling, eds., The Libro de las profecías of Christopher Columbus (Gainesville, 1991).
27. Wheatley, Golden Khersonese, pp. 136, 138–62; cf. O. W. Wolters, Early Indonesian Commerce: a Study of the Origins of Śrīvijaya (Ithaca, NY, 1967), p. 57.
28. Wang Gungwu, The Nanhai Trade: Early Chinese Trade in the South China Sea (new edn, Singapore, 2003; original edition: Journal of the Malayan Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society, vol. 31 (1958), part 2, pp. 1–135), p. 8.
29. Wang, Nanhai Trade, pp. xiii–xiv; D. Heng, Sino-Malay Trade and Diplomacy from the Tenth through the Fourteenth Century (Athens, Ohio, 2009), pp. 21–2.
30. Wang, Nanhai Trade, pp. xvii, 1–2, citing Ssu-Ma Ch’ien (1st c. BC).
31. See e.g. V. Hansen, The Silk Road: a New History (London, 2012); J. Millward, The Silk Road: a Very Short Introduction (Oxford, 2013); X. Liu, The Silk Road in World History (New York and Oxford, 2010); F. Wood, The Silk Road (London, 2002).
32. Wang, Nanhai Trade, p. xv.
33. Ibid., pp. 9, 15.
34. Ibid., p. 33.
35. K. Hall, A History of Early Southeast Asia: Maritime Trade and Societal Development, 100–1500 (Lanham, 2011), pp. 41–4; Wheatley, Golden Khersonese, p. 14; Wolters, Early Indonesian Commerce, pp. 39–41.
36. Wheatley, Golden Khersonese, pp. 16–17, 26–30.
37. Ibid., p. 9, fig. 8.
38. Cited in Wolters, Early Indonesian Commerce, p. 44.
39. Wang, Nanhai Trade, pp. 35, 45, from the Shih i Chi cited in the T’u Shu Chi Ch’eng.
40. Ibid., pp. 50–51 (place names modified to Pinyin).
41. Ibid., pp. 24–5, 52.
42. Wheatley, Golden Khersonese, p. 12.
43. Text ibid., pp. 8–9, removing some square brackets; also in Wang, Nanhai Trade, p. 16; cf. Wolters, Early Indonesian Commerce, p. 61.
44. Wang, Nanhai Trade, p. 19.
45. Ibid., p. 37.
46. Wolters, Early Indonesian Commerce, pp. 77–8; Wang, Nanhai Trade, pp. 18, 59.
47. Wang, Nanhai Trade, p. 39.
48. J. Miksic, ‘The Beginning of Trade in Ancient Southeast Asia: the Role of Oc Eo and the Lower Mekong River’, in J. Khoo, ed., Art and Archaeology of Fu Nan: Pre-Khmer Kingdom of the Lower Mekong Valley (Bangkok, 2003), p. 22; Wang, Nanhai Trade, pp. 31–48.
49. K’ang Tai cited in Hall, Maritime Trade and State Development, p. 48 – also p. 272; Wheatley, Golden Khersonese, pp. 14–15, 285–7.
50. Miksic, ‘Beginning of Trade’, p. 13; K. Hall, ‘Economic History of Early Southeast Asia’, in N. Tarling, ed., The Cambridge History of Southeast Asia, vol. 1: From Early Times to c.1500 (Cambridge, 1992), p. 193.
51. Hall, Maritime Trade and State Development, pp. 49–51; J. C. van Leur, Indonesian Trade and Society: Essays in Asian Social and Economic History (The Hague, 1955).
52. Miksic, ‘Beginning of Trade’, p. 4.
53. Ibid., pp. 2–4, 18.
54. Vo Si Khai, ‘The Kingdom of Fu Nan and the culture of Oc Eo’, in Khoo, ed., Art and Archaeology of Fu Nan, p. 70.
55. Miksic, ‘Beginning of Trade’, p. 16; also Vo Si Khai, ‘Kingdom of Fu Nan’, p. 47 and map of waterways, p. 48.
56. K. Taylor, ‘The Early Kingdoms’, in Tarling, ed., Cambridge History of Southeast Asia, vol. 1, pp. 158–9.
57. Miksic, ‘Beginning of Trade’, pp. 14, 18–19; Vo Si Khai, ‘Kingdom of Fu Nan’, p. 70.
58. Miksic, ‘Beginning of Trade’, pp. 8–11; Wang, Nanhai Trade, p. 39.
59. Liang Shu in Miksic, ‘Beginning of Trade’, p. 22; Vo Si Khai, ‘Kingdom of Fu Nan’, p. 69.
60. E. H. Warmington, The Commerce between the Roman Empire and India (2nd edn, London, 1974), pp. 127–9; M. Cary and E. H. Warmington, The Ancient Explorers (2nd edn, Harmondsworth, 1963), p. 105; Suárez, Early Mapping of Southeast Asia, pp. 90–92.
61. My suggestion, with thanks to Dr Audrey Truschke for disentangling the Sanskrit, though other interpretations such as ‘Strong City’ exist; see Wheatley, Golden Khersonese, p. 205 for Kathārsaritsāgara.
62. K’ang Tai cited ibid., p. 16; also in Hall, Maritime Trade and State Development, pp. 64–5.
63. Text in Wheatley, Golden Khersonese, p. 17.
64. Text Ibid., pp. 37–9; Wolters, Early Indonesian Commerce, p. 65.
65. Text in Wheatley, Golden Khersonese, p. 38, with names converted to Pinyin spelling.
66. Wang, Nanhai Trade, pp. 41–2.
67. Text in Wheatley, Golden Khersonese, p. 39.
68. Hall, Maritime Trade and State Development, p. 37; also Hall, History of Early Southeast Asia, pp. 65–6.
69. Wang, Nanhai Trade, p. 56.
70. Miksic, ‘Beginning of Trade’, pp. 28–30; Vo Si Khai, ‘Kingdom of Fu Nan’, p. 84.
71. Wolters, Early Indonesian Commerce, pp. 81, 83–5, 129–63.
8. A Maritime Empire?
1. C. C. Brown, ed., Sĕjarah Mĕlayu, or ‘Malay Annals’ (2nd edn, Kuala Lumpur and Singapore, 1970), p. 15.
2. J. Miksic, Singapore and the Silk Road of the Sea, 1300–1800 (Singapore, 2013), p. 55.
3. Michel Jacq-Hergoualc’h, transl. Victoria Hobson, The Malay Peninsula (Leiden, 2001), p. 233.
4. G. Ferrand, L’Empire Sumatranais de Çrīvijaya (Paris, 1922), pp. 5–6, 15–16; F. Hirth and W. W. Rockhill, eds., Chau Ju-kua: His Work on the Chinese and Arab Trade in the Twelfth and Thirteenth Centuries, Entitled Chu-fan-chï (St Petersburg, 1911), p. 114; also Wang Gungwu, The Nanhai Trade: Early Chinese Trade in the South China Sea (new edn, Singapore, 2003; original edition: Journal of the Malayan Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society, vol. 31 (1958), part 2, pp. 1–135), p. 96, for Fo-chi; D. Heng, Sino-Malay Trade and Diplomacy from the Tenth through the Fourteenth Century (Athens, Ohio, 2009), p. 27, for the mission in 683.
5. Hirth and Rockhill, eds., Chau Ju-kua, pp. 60, 114; Ferrand, Empire Sumatranais, pp. 1, 8; G. Coedès, The Indianized States of Southeast Asia (Honolulu, 1968).
6. Wang, Nanhai Trade, pp. 87, 91.
7. Cited ibid., p. 113.
8. Ferrand, Empire Sumatranais, pp. 7–8.
9. Miksic, Singapore and the Silk Road, pp. 37–8.
10. P. Wheatley, The Golden Khersonese: Studies in the Historical Geography of the Malay Peninsula before AD 1500 (Kuala Lumpur, 1961), p. 45; Miksic, Singapore and the Silk Road, p. 67.
11. Hirth and Rockhill, eds., Chau Ju-kua, p. 61.
12. Ibid., p. 60.
13. Ibid., p. 61; Ferrand, Empire Sumatranais, pp. 8–13; slaves: Song historian, ibid., p. 16.
14. Ch’ên Ching, Hsin tsuan hsiang p’u, quoting the lost Hsiang lu of Yeh The’ing-kuei, cited in D. Abulafia, ‘Asia, Africa and the Trade of Medieval Europe’, in M. M. Postan, E. Miller and C. Postan, eds., The Cambridge Economic History of Europe (2nd edn, Cambridge, 1987), vol. 2, p. 445.
15. Ferrand, Empire Sumatranais, p. 18; Wang, Nanhai Trade, p. 1
17.
16. Heng, Sino-Malay Trade, p. 82.
17. Hirth and Rockhill, eds., Chau Ju-kua, p. 62; Ferrand, Empire Sumatranais, p. 2; Heng, Sino-Malay Trade, pp. 83–4.
18. Wang, Nanhai Trade, pp. 114–16; D. Twitchett, Financial Administration under the Tang Dynasty (2nd edn, Cambridge, 1970).
19. Hirth and Rockhill, eds., Chau Ju-kua, p. 62; Wheatley, Golden Khersonese, p. 63.
20. Hirth and Rockhill, eds., Chau Ju-kua, p. 62; Ferrand, Empire Sumatranais, p. 13.
21. Miksic, Singapore and the Silk Road.
22. Abū Zayd al-Sīrāfi, ‘Accounts of China and India’, in T. Mackintosh-Smith and J. Montgomery, eds., Two Arabic Travel Books (New York, 2014), pp. 88–9; R. Hodges and D. Whitehouse, Mohammed, Charlemagne and the Origins of Europe (London, 1983), pp. 134–5.
23. G. Ferrand, ed., Voyage du Marchand Arabe Sulaymân en Inde et en Chine rédigé en 851 suivi de Remarques par Abû Zayd Ḥasan (vers 916) (Paris, 1922), p. 95, also pp. 96–102, 142; Abū Zayd al-Sīrāfi, ‘Accounts of China and India’, pp. 32–3, 36–7, 88–91; Ferrand, Empire Sumatranais, pp. 53–4; Miksic, Singapore and the Silk Road, p. 80.
24. Ibn al-Fakih al-Hamadhani (902), in Ferrand, Empire Sumatranais, pp. 54, 67.
25. Abu Zayd Hasan in Ferrand, ed., Voyage du Marchand Arabe, pp. 96–7, 101; ibn Rosteh (c.903), in Ferrand, Empire Sumatranais, p. 55.
26. Second Voyage of Sindbad, in A Plain and Literal Translation of the Arabian Nights Entertainment now intituled The Book of the Thousand and One Nights, transl. R. Burton, ed. P. H. Newby (London, 1950), p. 179.
27. Abu Zayd Hasan (c.916) and al-Mas‘udi (943), in Ferrand, Empire Sumatranais, pp. 56–9, 62–3; also Bakuwi (15th c.), ibid., p. 78.
28. Al-Idrisi (1154), ibid., pp. 65–6.
29. Ibid., p. 66.
30. Ferrand, Empire Sumatranais, pp. 36, 38–41, 214, 218, 220–21; Jacq-Hergoualc’h, Malay Peninsula, pp. 239–48; Miksic, Singapore and the Silk Road, p. 77.
31. Hirth and Rockhill, eds., Chau Ju-kua, p. 60; Ferrand, Empire Sumatranais, p. 9.
32. Brown, ed., Sĕjarah Mĕlayu, pp. 77–8.
33. Miksic, Singapore and the Silk Road, pp. 74–5, 77, 79; also fig. 2.09, p. 76.
34. Jacq-Hergoualc’h, Malay Peninsula, pp. 234–7.
35. Abulafia, ‘Asia, Africa and the Trade of Medieval Europe’, p. 447.
36. Wang, Nanhai Trade, p. 95: embassies from Jambi (Chan-pei); Miksic, Singapore and the Silk Road, p. 72, for Jambi.
37. Miksic, Singapore and the Silk Road, pp. 80–83.
38. H. Kulke, ‘Kadātuan–Śrivijaya: Empire or Kraton of Śrivijaya? A Reassessment of the Epigraphical Evidence’, Bulletin de l’École française d’Extrême Orient, vol. 80 (1993), pp. 159–80; Jacq-Hergoualc’h, Malay Peninsula, pp. 248–55.
39. J. Chaffee, The Muslim Merchants of Pre-Modern China: the History of a Maritime Asian Trade Diaspora, 750–1400 (Cambridge, 2018), p. 24; O. W. Wolters, Early Indonesian Commerce: a Study of the Origins of Śrīvijaya (Ithaca, NY, 1967), pp. 129–38.
40. Wolters, Early Indonesian Commerce, p. 151.
41. Jacq-Hergoualc’h, Malay Peninsula, p. 241.
42. Wolters, Early Indonesian Commerce, pp. 154–8; Heng, Sino-Malay Trade, p. 28; Chaffee, Muslim Merchants, p. 29.
43. Miksic, Singapore and the Silk Road, p. 91; Heng, Sino-Malay Trade, pp. 14–15.
44. R. Krahl, J. Guy, J. K. Wilson and J. Raby, eds., Shipwrecked: Tang Treasures and Monsoon Winds (Singapore and Washington DC, 2010).
45. J. Guy, ‘Rare and Strange Goods: International Trade in Ninth-Century Asia’, ibid., pp. 19, 30.
46. J. K. Wilson and M. Flecker, ‘Dating the Belitung Shipwreck’, in Krahl et al., eds., Shipwrecked, p. 40.
47. R. Krahl, ‘Chinese Ceramics in the Late Tang Dynasty’, in Krahl et al., eds., Shipwrecked, p. 52.
48. Guy, ‘Rare and Strange Goods’, pp. 29–30.
49. Krahl, ‘Chinese Ceramics’, p. 40.
50. Guy, ‘Rare and Strange Goods’, pp. 23, 27.
51. Liu Yang, ‘Tang Dynasty Changsha Ceramics’, in Krahl et al., eds., Shipwrecked, pp. 145–59; Krahl, ‘Chinese Ceramics’, p. 46.
52. R. Krahl, ‘Tang Blue-and-White’, in Krahl et al., eds., Shipwrecked, pp. 209–11; Heng, Sino-Malay Trade, p. 33; also A. Kessler, Song Blue and White Porcelain on the Silk Road (Leiden, 2012).
53. Krahl et al., eds., Shipwrecked, p. 22, fig. 14.
54. Qi Dongfang, ‘Gold and Silver Wares on the Belitung Shipwreck’, ibid., pp. 221–7.
55. Miksic, Singapore and the Silk Road, p. 71.
56. J. Hallett, ‘Pearl Cups like the Moon: the Abbasid Reception of Chinese Ceramics’, in Krahl et al., eds., Shipwrecked, pp. 75–81.
57. Krahl, ‘Chinese Ceramics’, p. 40; Miksic, Singapore and the Silk Road, p. 81.
58. Miksic, Singapore and the Silk Road, pp. 86–91; Heng, Sino-Malay Trade, p. 29; Chaffee, Muslim Merchants, pp. 56–7.
59. Li Qingxin, Nanhai I and the Maritime Silk Road (Beijing, 2009); Chaffee, Muslim Merchants, pp. 82–3; China and the World: Shipwrecks and Export Porcelain on the Maritime Silk Road (Beijing, 2017; text in Chinese with English and Chinese captions), pp. 190–201.
60. Wang Gungwu, ‘A Two-Ocean Mediterranean’, in G. Wade and L. Tana, eds., Anthony Reid and the Study of the Southeast Asian Past (Singapore, 2012), pp. 68–84.
9. ‘I am about to cross the Great Ocean’
1. T. Power, The Red Sea from Byzantium to the Caliphate AD 500–1000 (Cairo, 2012); P. Crone, Meccan Trade and the Rise of Islam (Oxford, 1987).
2. Power, Red Sea, pp. 70–71, with telling criticisms of I. Shahid, ‘Byzantium in South Arabia’, Dumbarton Oaks Papers, vol. 33 (1979), pp. 27–94, especially p. 56; also G. Bowersock, The Throne of Adulis: Red Sea Wars on the Eve of Islam (Oxford, 2013), pp. 96–8.
3. Bowersock, Throne of Adulis, pp. 106–33.
4. David Abulafia, The Great Sea: a Human History of the Mediterranean (London, 2011), p. 221.
5. Power, Red Sea, pp. 103–9.
6. R. Hodges and D. Whitehouse, Mohammed, Charlemagne and the Origins of Europe (London, 1983), pp. 126–9.
7. Quintus Horatius Flaccus, Epistles, 2.1, ll.156–7.
8. Hodges and Whitehouse, Mohammed, Charlemagne, pp. 131–2.
9. Xinru Liu, The Silk Road in World History (Oxford and New York, 2010), pp. 96–101; F. Wood, The Silk Road (London, 2002); P. Frankopan, The Silk Road: a New History of the World (London, 2015).
10. Hodges and Whitehouse, Mohammed, Charlemagne, pp. 115–18.
11. Slightly modified from the passage cited by S. M. Stern, ‘Ramisht of Siraf, a Merchant Millionaire of the Twelfth Century’, Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society, n.s., vol. 99 (1967), pp. 10–14.
12. D. Abulafia, ‘Asia, Africa and the Trade of Medieval Europe’, in M. M. Postan, E. Miller and C. Postan, eds., The Cambridge Economic History of Europe (2nd edn, Cambridge, 1987), vol. 2, p. 451.
13. G. Ferrand, ed., Voyage du Marchand Arabe Sulaymân en Inde et en Chine rédigé en 851 suivi de Remarques par Abû Zayd Ḥasan (vers 916) (Paris, 1922), pp. 35–7; Abū Zayd al-Sīrāfi, ‘Accounts of China and India’, in T. Mackintosh-Smith and J. Montgomery, eds., Two Arabic Travel Books (New York, 2014), pp. 28–31 (pp. 5–6 for the problem of authorship; pp. 84–5, 88–9, 136 n. 28 for the ‘China ships’).
14. Ferrand, ed., Voyage du Marchand Arabe, pp. 75–7; Abū Zayd al-Sīrāfi, ‘Accounts of China and India’, pp. 66–71; D. Heng, Sino-Malay Trade and Diplomacy from the Tenth through the Fourteenth Century (Athens, Oh., 2009), pp. 29, 34–5, giving a date of 873; A. Schottenhammer, ‘China’s Emergence as a Maritime Power’, in The Cambridge History of China, vol. 5, part 2: Sung China 960–1279 (Cambridge, 2015), pp. 437–525.
15. Ferrand, ed., Voyage du Marchand Arabe, pp. 81, 84; Abū Zayd al-Sīrāfi, ‘Accounts of China and India’, pp. 72–9.
16. Hodges and Whitehouse, Mohammed, Charlemagne, pp. 133–41; D. Whitehouse, ‘Sīrāf: a
Medieval Port on the Persian Gulf’, World Archaeology, vol. 2 (1970), pp. 141–58.
17. Abulafia, Great Sea, p. 389.
18. Ibid., pp. 258–67 for the Jewish merchants from Cairo; and, more generally, pp. 268–317.
19. Power, Red Sea, pp. 146, 148–9.
20. Ibid., pp. 155–7; G. T. Scanlon, ‘Egypt and China: Trade and Imitation’, in D. S. Richards, ed., Islam and the Trade of Asia: a Colloquium (Oxford, 1970), pp. 81–95.
21. S. D. Goitein and M. Friedman, India Traders of the Middle Ages: Documents from the Cairo Geniza – ‘India Book’ (Leiden, 2008), pp. 387–9; E. Lambourn, Abraham’s Luggage: a Social Life of Things in the Medieval Indian Ocean World (Cambridge, 2018).
22. S. D. Goitein, A Mediterranean Society: the Jewish Communities of the Arab World as Portrayed in the Cairo Geniza, vol. 1: Economic Foundations (Berkeley and Los Angeles, 1967).
23. Cited in S. Reif, A Jewish Archive from Old Cairo: the History of Cambridge University’s Genizah Collection (Richmond, Surrey, 2000), p. 173.
24. See e.g. Goitein and Friedman, India Traders, pp. 160–61, 527, 535.
25. Ibid., p. 159.
26. Li Guo, Commerce, Culture, and Community in a Red Sea Port in the Thirteenth Century: the Arabic Documents from Quseir (Leiden, 2004); A. Regourd, ‘Arabic Language Documents on Paper’, in D. Peacock and L. Blue, eds., Myos Hormos – Quseir al-Qadim: Roman and Islamic Ports on the Red Sea, vol. 2: Finds from the Excavations 1999–2003 (Oxford, 2011), pp. 339–44.
27. Guo, Commerce, Culture, and Community, pp. 141, 143, 152, 159–60, 162, 235, texts 3, 4, 8, 11, 12, 43.
28. Ibid., p. 37.
29. Ibid., pp. 35–8.
30. Regourd, ‘Arabic Language Documents’, pp. 339–40.
31. Cited by Guo, Commerce, Culture, and Community, p. 29.
32. Goitein and Friedman, India Traders, p. 189: ‘hiring two camels from Qus to Aydhab’.
33. D. Peacock, ‘Regional Survey’, in D. Peacock and L. Blue, eds., Myos Hormos – Quseir al-Qadim: Roman and Islamic Ports on the Red Sea, vol. 1: Survey and Excavations 1999–2003 (Oxford, 2006), p. 12.
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