34. L. Blue, J. Whitewright and R. Thomas, ‘Ships and Ships’ Fittings’, in Peacock and Blue, eds., Myos Hormos, vol. 2, p. 184.
35. Guo, Commerce, Culture, and Community, p. 137, text 1.
36. M. van der Veen, A. Cox and J. Morales, ‘Plant Remains’, in Peacock and Blue, eds., Myos Hormos, vol. 2, pp. 228–31.
37. F. Handley, ‘Basketry, Matting and Cordage’, in Peacock and Blue, eds., Myos Hormos, vol. 2, pp. 306–7.
38. Guo, Commerce, Culture, and Community, pp. 38–9, 175, 181–2, 200, 203, 214–15, 219, 239, 257, 261, 280, texts 17, 20, 26, 27, 31, 32, 46, 58, 60, 67; Regourd, ‘Arabic Language Documents’, pp. 342–3.
39. Guo, Commerce, Culture, and Community, pp. 225–6, text 36.
40. Ibid., pp. 51–4.
41. D. Agius, ‘The Inscribed Ostrich Egg’, in Peacock and Blue, eds., Myos Hormos, vol. 1, p. 159 (punctuation modified here).
42. R. Bridgman, ‘Celadon and Qingbai Sherds: Preliminary Thoughts on the Medieval Ceramics’, in Peacock and Blue, eds., Myos Hormos, vol. 2, pp. 43–6.
43. Guo, Commerce, Culture, and Community, pp. 63, 75–89, and plate 1, p. 79.
44. R. Margariti, Aden and the Indian Ocean Trade: 150 Years in the Life of a Medieval Arabian Port (Chapel Hill, 2007), p. 71; Goitein and Friedman, India Traders, p. 295.
45. Margariti, Aden and the Indian Ocean Trade, pp. 47–67.
46. N. A. al-Shamrookh, The Commerce and Trade of the Rasulids in the Yemen, 630–858/1231–1454 (Kuwait, 1996), pp. 101–29.
47. Goitein and Friedman, India Traders, pp. 439–47.
48. Alexandria: Abulafia, Great Sea, pp. 296–7, 309.
49. Margariti, Aden and the Indian Ocean Trade, pp. 94–6, 101–2, 113, 115–19; for late medieval Yemen: al-Shamrookh, Commerce and Trade of the Rasulids, pp. 259–81, 315–36 (appendix 1).
50. Goitein and Friedman, India Traders, pp. 508–9: ‘no foreigner should be molested’; A. Hartman and D. Halkin, Epistles of Maimonides: Crisis and Leadership (Philadelphia, 1993).
51. Margariti, Aden and the Indian Ocean Trade, pp. 120–21.
52. Ibid., pp. 153–4.
53. Goitein and Friedman, India Traders, p. 24.
54. Ibid., p. 534.
55. Ibid., pp. 147, 160–61.
56. E. Lambourn, K. Veluthat and R. Tomber, eds., The Kollam Plates in the World of the Ninth-Century Indian Ocean (New Delhi, 2020).
57. Ferrand, ed., Voyage du Marchand Arabe, pp. 18, 19, 40, 42; Abū Zayd al-Sīrāfi, ‘Accounts of China and India’, pp. 30–33; J. Chaffee, The Muslim Merchants of Pre-Modern China: the History of a Maritime Asian Trade Diaspora, 750–1400 (Cambridge, 2018), pp. 21–3.
58. S. Digby, ‘The Maritime Trade of India’, in T. Raychaudhuri and I. Habib, eds., The Cambridge Economic History of India, vol. 1: c.1200–c.1750 (Cambridge, 1982), pp. 127, 146.
59. Goitein and Friedman, India Traders, pp. 288–93, 373–6.
60. Lambourn, Abraham’s Luggage., pp 00–0.
61. F. Hirth and W. W. Rockhill, eds., Chau Ju-kua: His Work on the Chinese and Arab Trade in the Twelfth and Thirteenth Centuries, Entitled Chu-fan-chï (St Petersburg, 1911), pp. 88–9.
62. Goitein and Friedman, India Traders, pp. 314–17, 332, 555.
63. Digby, ‘Maritime Trade of India’, pp. 125–6; Goitein and Friedman, India Traders, pp. 346, 576.
64. Goitein and Friedman, India Traders, pp. 54–68; also pp. 473, 476.
65. Ibid., p. 71; Abulafia, Great Sea, pp. 319–20.
66. Hirth and Rockhill, eds., Chau Ju-kua, p. 87.
67. Goitein and Friedman, India Traders, pp. 35 n. 15, 210; Chaffee, Muslim Merchants, p. 31.
68. Goitein and Friedman, India Traders, pp. 124–5.
69. Ibid., pp. 387–9.
70. Digby, ‘Maritime Trade of India’, p. 133.
71. Abulafia, Great Sea, p. 296.
72. Abulafia, ‘Asia, Africa and the Trade of Medieval Europe’, pp. 437–43; for Islamic maps of the Indian Ocean, Y. Rapoport and E. Savage-Smith, Lost Maps of the Caliphs (Oxford, 2018).
10. The Rising and the Setting Sun
1. I. Morris, The World of the Shining Prince: Court Life in Ancient Japan (Oxford, 1964), p. 87.
2. See e.g. W. McCullough, ‘The Heian Court, 794–1070’, in The Cambridge History of Japan, vol. 2: Heian Japan (Cambridge, 1999), p. 83.
3. C. von Verschuer, Across the Perilous Sea: Japanese Trade with China and Korea from the Seventh to the Sixteenth Centuries (Ithaca, NY, 2006), p. 3; B. Batten, Gateway to Japan: Hakata in War and Peace, 500–1300 (Honolulu, 2006), pp. 61–2; also David C. Kang, East Asia before the West: Five Centuries of Trade and Tribute (New York, 2010), p. 60.
4. Five embassies between 664 and 671: Batten, Gateway to Japan, p. 25.
5. G. Sansom, Japan: a Short Cultural History (4th edn, Stanford, 1978), p. 35.
6. Kim Pusik, The Silla Annals of the Samguk Sagi [‘History of the Three Kingdoms’], ed. and transl. E. Shultz, H. Kang and D. Kane (Seongnam-si, 2012), p. 26.
7. I am very grateful to Professor Hiroshi Takayama of Tokyo University for showing me the Munakata Grand Shrine and its small but spectacular museum in 2000.
8. Von Verschuer, Across the Perilous Sea, p. 67; Batten, Gateway to Japan, p. 28; in fact Tsushima is a pair of islands very close together.
9. McCullough, ‘Heian Court’, p. 81.
10. Masao Yaku, The Kojiki in the Life of Japan (Tokyo, 1969).
11. Von Verschuer, Across the Perilous Sea, p. 2.
12. R. Bowring and P. Kornicki, eds., Cambridge Encyclopaedia of Japan (Cambridge, 1993), p. 47.
13. McCullough, ‘Heian Court’, p. 81; C. Eckert, K. Lee, Y. I. Lew et al., Korea Old and New: a History (Seoul and Cambridge, Mass., 1990), p. 42; Jung-Pang Lo, China as a Sea Power, 1127–1368: a Preliminary Survey of the Maritime Expansion and Naval Exploits of the Chinese People during the Southern Song and Yuan Periods, ed. B. Elleman (Singapore, 2012), pp. 52–4.
14. Batten, Gateway to Japan, pp. 52–3, 55, 57–8.
15. Kim Pusik, Silla Annals, p. 308; another T’aeryŏm served as ambassador to Tang China in 828 and brought back the seeds of tea-shrubs: p. 345; also p. 159 n. 42.
16. Ibid., p. 207.
17. Ibid., pp. 264, 267, 297; also p. 294 [742]: ‘an envoy from Japan arrived, but he was not received.’ Cf. pp. 329, 366, 371, 373.
18. R. Borgen, Sugawara no Michizane and the Early Heian Court (Cambridge, Mass., 1986), pp. 228–40.
19. Von Verschuer, Across the Perilous Sea, pp. 5–8, 11–13, 15; Batten, Gateway to Japan, p. 63, table 2.
20. Batten, Gateway to Japan, pp. 51–2; Kang, East Asia before the West, pp. 71–2.
21. Batten, Gateway to Japan, pp. 41–5; poem: pp. 41–2, cited from P. Doe, A Warbler’s Song in the Dusk: the Life and Work of Ōtomo Yakamochi (718–85) (Berkeley, 1982), pp. 219–20.
22. Batten, Gateway to Japan, pp. 55, 59, 65.
23. Ibid., pp. 69–76, noting p. 72, table 3, and p. 74, fig. 10 (wooden toilet sticks).
24. Ibid., pp. 3–4, 55, 69–70; also p. 2, fig. 1.
25. Ibid., pp. 67–8.
26. Von Verschuer, Across the Perilous Sea, pp. 20–21; McCullough, ‘Heian Court’, p. 91.
27. Murasaki Shikibu, The Tale of Genji, transl. E. Siedensticker (London, 1992), p. 18.
28. Sansom, Japan, pp. 29–30.
29. C. von Verschuer, Les Relations officielles du Japon avec la Chine aux VIIIe et IXe siècles (Geneva, 1985), pp. 3, 55–60; Borgen, Sugawara no Michizane, p. 227.
30. J. Stanley-Baker, Japanese Art (London, 1984), pp. 100–101, fig. 67.
31. Von Verschuer, Relations officielles, p. 42.
32. Sansom, Japan, pp. 88–9.
33. Ibid., pp. 60–61.
34. G. Reeves, ed. and transl., The Lotus Sutra (Somerville, 2008); G. Tanabe, ed., The Lotus Sutra in Japanese Culture (Honolulu, 1989).
35. Von Verschuer, Across the Perilous Sea, p. 10.
36. V
on Verschuer, Relations officielles, pp. 216–20; von Verschuer, Across the Perilous Sea, pp. 18–19.
37. Borgen, Sugawara no Michizane, pp. 242–3; McCullough, ‘Heian Court’, p. 85; see von Verschuer, Relations officielles, pp. 163–4, and her discussion, pp. 161–80.
38. Borgen, Sugawara no Michizane, pp. 227–53.
39. Von Verschuer, Across the Perilous Sea, pp. 14–16.
40. Stanley-Baker, Japanese Art, pp. 53–7; von Verschuer, Across the Perilous Sea, p. 18.
41. E. Reischauer, ed. and transl., Ennin’s Diary: the Record of a Pilgrimage to China (New York, 1955); E. Reischauer, Ennin’s Travels in Tang China (New York, 1955); the French edition, Ennin: Journal d’un voyageur en Chine au IXe siècle (Paris, 1961) is translated from Reischauer’s English but has a useful introduction by R. Lévy. For Ken’in, see Reischauer, Ennin’s Travels, p. 17, and Ennin’s Diary, p. 410.
42. Reischauer, ed. and transl., Ennin’s Diary, p. 5 n. 13.
43. Reischauer, Ennin’s Travels, pp. 48–51.
44. Ibid., pp. 53–8.
45. Reischauer, ed. and transl., Ennin’s Diary, pp. 100, 118.
46. Kim Pusik, Silla Annals, pp. 346–7.
47. Reischauer, Ennin’s Travels, pp. 60, 63.
48. Ibid., p. 64.
49. Ibid., pp. 65–7.
50. Reischauer, ed. and transl., Ennin’s Diary, p. 8.
51. Ibid., pp. 6–21; Reischauer, Ennin’s Travels, pp. 70–71.
52. Reischauer, ed. and transl., Ennin’s Diary, p. 34.
53. Ibid., pp. 97, 99–101.
54. Ibid., pp. 114–16.
55. Ibid., p. 98; also Reischauer, Ennin’s Travels, p. 97.
56. Reischauer, Ennin’s Travels, p. 83.
57. Ibid., pp. 81–6; Reischauer, ed. and transl., Ennin’s Diary, pp. 95, 122–4; Lévy, Ennin, p. 17.
58. Reischauer, ed. and transl., Ennin’s Diary, pp. 94–5; Reischauer, Ennin’s Travels, pp. 84–5.
59. Von Verschuer, Relations officielles, p. 205.
60. Reischauer, ed. and transl., Ennin’s Diary, pp. 102–3, 112.
61. Ibid., pp. 102–5; Lévy, Ennin, pp. 13–14.
62. Reischauer, ed. and transl., Ennin’s Diary, pp. 105–7.
63. Ibid., p. 111.
64. Reischauer, Ennin’s Travels, pp. 94–6.
65. Reischauer, ed. and transl., Ennin’s Diary, p. 131; Reischauer, Ennin’s Travels, pp. 289–90.
66. Reischauer, Ennin’s Travels, pp. 100–113.
67. Ibid., p. 29; also pp. 217–71; Reischauer, ed. and transl., Ennin’s Diary, pp. 342–89.
68. Reischauer, ed. and transl., Ennin’s Diary, pp. 390, 394.
69. Ibid., pp. 398–404; Lévy, Ennin, pp. 32–3.
70. Kim Pusik, Silla Annals, p. 344; Eckert, Lee, Lew et al., Korea Old and New, p. 59; von Verschuer, Relations officielles, p. 451 n. 488.
71. Ilyon, Samguk Yusa: Legends and History of the Three Kingdoms of Ancient Korea, ed. and transl. Ha Tae-Hung and G. Mintz (Seoul, 2006), book ii, section 47.
72. Von Verschuer, Relations officielles, p. 139; pp. 358–9, giving the text of a document of 842.
73. Reischauer, ed. and transl., Ennin’s Diary, pp. 100, 118; letters: pp. 167–9; Reischauer, Ennin’s Travels, pp. 289–90.
74. Kim Pusik, Silla Annals, p. 349.
75. Ilyon, Samguk Yusa, book ii, section 47; cf. Reischauer, Ennin’s Travels, pp. 287–94.
76. Kim Pusik, Silla Annals, p. 356, where Wihūn is yet another name for Yomjang.
11. ‘Now the world is the world’s world’
1. K. Yamamura, ‘The Growth of Commerce in Medieval Japan’, in The Cambridge History of Japan, vol. 3: Medieval Japan (Cambridge, 1990), pp. 357, 364; E. Segal, Coins, Trade, and the State: Economic Growth in Early Medieval Japan (Cambridge, Mass., 2011), pp. 50–51.
2. K. Shōji, ‘Japan and East Asia’, in Cambridge History of Japan, vol. 3, pp. 410–11.
3. Yamamura, ‘Growth of Commerce’, pp. 347, 351–6; T. Toyoda, History of pre-Meiji Commerce in Japan (Tokyo, 1969), pp. 21–8.
4. Segal, Coins, Trade, and the State, pp. 74–80.
5. Ibid., p. 77, fig. 4.
6. Yamamura, ‘Growth of Commerce’, pp. 359–60; Segal, Coins, Trade, and the State, pp. 46–7, 53.
7. Segal, Coins, Trade, and the State, p. 93; S. Gay, The Moneylenders of Late Medieval Kyoto (Honolulu, 2001).
8. P. F. Souyri, The World Turned Upside Down: Medieval Japanese Society (London, 2002), pp. 87–8, 92–5, 154–6; cf. David Abulafia, The Great Sea: a Human History of the Mediterranean (London, 2011), p. 400 and plate 51; Yamamura, ‘Growth of Commerce’, pp. 366–8.
9. Segal, Coins, Trade, and the State, pp. 59, 84–5.
10. C. von Verschuer, Across the Perilous Sea: Japanese Trade with China and Korea from the Seventh to the Sixteenth Centuries (Ithaca, NY, 2006), pp. 43, 45.
11. W. McCullough, ‘The Heian Court, 794–1070’, in The Cambridge History of Japan, vol. 2: Heian Japan (Cambridge, 1999), pp. 87–8.
12. Von Verschuer, Across the Perilous Sea, pp. 53–4, 61–2.
13. Ibid., pp. 101–2.
14. N. C. Rousmanière, Vessels of Influence: China and the Birth of Porcelain in Medieval and Early Modern Japan (London, 2012), pp. 78–82; C. von Verschuer, Les Relations officielles du Japon avec la Chine aux VIIIe et IXe siècles (Geneva, 1985), p. 251; von Verschuer, Across the Perilous Sea, pp. 63–8.
15. Chinese thirteenth-century treatise quoted in von Verschuer, Across the Perilous Sea, p. 68.
16. Von Verschuer, Across the Perilous Sea, pp. 71–3.
17. Ibid., pp. 45–6, 60.
18. Ibid., pp. 58–9.
19. Ibid., p. 42.
20. Ibid., p. 47.
21. Souyri, World Turned Upside Down, pp. 1–2; for the Taira and Chinese trade, see Von Verschuer, Across the Perilous Sea, p. 46.
22. Von Verschuer, Across the Perilous Sea, p. 79.
23. Chung Yang Mo, ‘The Kinds of Ceramic Articles Discovered in Sinan, and Problems about Them’, in Tokyo kokuritsu kakabutsukan, Shin’an kaitei hikiage bunbutsu: Sunken Treasures off the Sinan Coast (Tokyo, Nagoya and Fukoaka, 1983), pp. 84–7; see also pp. 58–66 and colour plates 1–39 (celadons), pp. 69–70 and colour plates 53–6 (white porcelain).
24. Segal, Coins, Trade, and the State, p. 53.
25. Youn Moo-byong, ‘Recovery of Seabed Relics at Sinan and Its Results from the Viewpoint of Underwater Archaeology’, in Shin’an kaitei hikiage bunbutsu, pp. 81–3; von Verschuer, Across the Perilous Sea, pp. 95–7.
26. Chung, ‘Kinds of Ceramic Articles’, p. 87.
27. Von Verschuer, Across the Perilous Sea, p. 81; Shōji, ‘Japan and East Asia’, pp. 405–7.
28. Souyri, World Turned Upside Down, pp. 158–60.
29. Von Verschuer, Across the Perilous Sea, pp. 108–10; F. Gipouloux, The Asian Mediterranean: Port Cities and Trading Networks in China, Japan and Southeast Asia, 13th–21st century (Cheltenham, 2011), pp. 64–5; Toyoda, History of pre-Meiji Commerce, p. 30; Cs. Oláh, Räuberische Chinesen und tückische Japaner: die diplomatischen Beziehungen zwischen China und Japan im 15. und 16. Jahrhundert (Wiesbaden, 2009), pp. 141–5.
30. Letters cited from Wang Yi-T’ung, Official Relations between China and Japan 1368–1549 (Cambridge, Mass., 1953), pp. 18–19; Kanenaga: Toyoda, History of pre-Meiji Commerce, p. 29.
31. Von Verschuer, Across the Perilous Sea, pp. 113–17; Gipouloux, Asian Mediterranean, pp. 65–6; Shōji, ‘Japan and East Asia’, pp. 428–32.
32. Von Verschuer, Across the Perilous Sea, p. 121.
33. T. Conlan, In Little Need of Divine Intervention: Takezaki Suenaga’s Scrolls of the Mongol Invasions of Japan (Ithaca, NY, 2001).
34. Shōji, ‘Japan and East Asia’, pp. 414–15; S. Turnbull, The Mongol Invasions of Japan 1274 and 1281 (Botley, Oxford, 2010), pp. 8–10; J. Clements, A Brief History of Khubilai Khan (London, 2010); M. Rossabi, Khubilai Khan: His Life and Times (Berkeley and Los Angele
s, 1988).
35. Slightly modernized from Henry Yule and Henri Cordier, transl. and eds., The Travels of Marco Polo: the Complete Yule–Cordier Edition (3 vols. bound as 2, New York, 1993), vol. 2, pp. 253–5; Shōji, ‘Japan and East Asia’, p. 419; cf. F. Wood, Did Marco Polo Go to China? (London, 1995).
36. Conlan, In Little Need of Divine Intervention, p. 201, doc. 1.
37. Turnbull, Mongol Invasions, p. 11.
38. J. Delgado, Khubilai Khan’s Lost Fleet: History’s Greatest Naval Disaster (London, 2009), pp. 89–90; Conlan, In Little Need of Divine Intervention, p. 256.
39. Shōji, ‘Japan and East Asia’, pp. 411–15; T. Brook, The Troubled Empire: China in the Yuan and Ming Dynasties (Cambridge, Mass., 2010), p. 26; Souyri, World Turned Upside Down, p. 79.
40. Turnbull, Mongol Invasions, p. 13.
41. Conlan, In Little Need of Divine Intervention, p. 205, doc. 5.
42. Brook, Troubled Empire, p. 26.
43. Conlan, In Little Need of Divine Intervention, p. 50.
44. Shōji, ‘Japan and East Asia’, p. 418; Turnbull, Mongol Invasions, pp. 32–50, especially pp. 49–50; Delgado, Khubilai Khan’s Lost Fleet, pp. 92, 97.
45. Delgado, Khubilai Khan’s Lost Fleet, pp. 73–4; Brook, Troubled Empire, p. 26.
46. Delgado, Khubilai Khan’s Lost Fleet, p. 100.
47. B. Batten, Gateway to Japan: Hakata in War and Peace, 500–1300 (Honolulu, 2006), pp. 48, 132–3, and p. 49, fig. 8; Conlan, In Little Need of Divine Intervention, pp. 235–6, doc. 41.
48. Turnbull, Mongol Invasions, pp. 56, 60–61, for maps.
49. For small boats, see illustrations from the war scrolls in Conlan, In Little Need of Divine Intervention, pp.140–46, 151.
50. Turnbull, Mongol Invasions, pp. 63–4; Clements, Brief History of Khubilai Khan, p. 161.
51. Clements, Brief History of Khubilai Khan, p. 159.
52. Conlan, In Little Need of Divine Intervention, p. 154.
53. Kadenokōji Kanenanka (1243–1308), cited in Conlan, In Little Need of Divine Intervention, pp. 266–7; ibid., pp. 254, 259.
54. Delgado, Khubilai Khan’s Lost Fleet, pp. 106–8.
The Boundless Sea Page 122