7. A. Giráldez, The Age of Trade: the Manila Galleons and the Dawn of the Global Economy (Lanham, 2015), pp. 51–2; Schurz, Manila Galleon, p. 23; Mitchell, Friar Andrés de Urdaneta, pp. 80–84; H. Kelsey, The First Circumnavigators: Unsung Heroes of the Age of Discovery (New Haven, 2016), pp. 59–100.
8. E. Hamilton, American Treasure and the Price Revolution in Spain, 1501–1650 (Cambridge, Mass., 1934), pp. 232–3.
9. Mitchell, Friar Andrés de Urdaneta, pp. 99–105; Kelsey, First Circumnavigators, pp. 101–27.
10. S. Fish, The Manila–Acapulco Galleons: the Treasure Ships of the Pacific (Milton Keynes, 2011), pp. 60–61.
11. Mitchell, Friar Andrés de Urdaneta, pp. 117–18.
12. Giráldez, Age of Trade, p. 52; Mitchell, Friar Andrés de Urdaneta, pp. 142–4.
13. Giráldez, Age of Trade, pp. 51–8; Schurz, Manila Galleon, p. 25; H. Thomas, World Without End; the Global Empire of Philip II (London, 2014), pp. 241–50.
14. B. Legarda Jr, ‘Two and a Half Centuries of the Galleon Trade’, in D. Flynn, A. Giráldez and J. Sobredo, eds., The Pacific World: Lands, Peoples and History of the Pacific, vol. 4: European Entry into the Pacific (Aldershot, 2001), p. 37 (original edition: Philippine Studies, vol. 3 (1955), p. 345); Mitchell, Friar Andrés de Urdaneta, p. 135.
15. ‘Annotated List of the Transpacific Galleons 1565–1815’, in Fish, Manila–Acapulco Galleons, pp. 492–523; also the figures and tables in P. Chaunu, Les Philippines et le Pacifique des Ibériques, XVIe, XVIIe, XVIIIe siècles (2 vols., Paris, 1960 and 1966), vols. 1 and 2.
16. See now Giráldez, Age of Trade; also Schurz, Manila Galleon; Flynn, Giráldez and Sobredo, eds., European Entry; Chaunu, Philippines; P. Chaunu, ‘Le Galion de Manille: Grandeur et décadence d’une route de la soie’, in Flynn, Giráldez and Sobredo, eds., European Entry, pp. 187–202 (original edition: Annales: Économies, Sociétés, Civilisations, vol. 4 (1951), pp. 447–62); Fish, Manila–Acapulco Galleons.
17. Han-sheng Chuan, ‘The Chinese Silk Trade with Spanish-America from the Late Ming to to the mid-Ch’ing Period’, in Flynn, Giráldez and Sobredo, eds., European Entry, pp. 241–59 (original edition: L. Thompson, ed., Studia Asiatica: Essays in Asian Studies in Felicitation of the Seventy-Fifth Anniversary of Professor Ch’en Shou-yi (San Francisco, 1975), pp. 99–117).
18. R. von Glahn, The Economic History of China from Antiquity to the Nineteenth Century (Cambridge, 2016), p. 308; T. Brook, The Confusions of Pleasure: Commerce and Culture in Ming China (Berkeley and Los Angeles, 1998), pp. 204–5.
19. Giráldez, Age of Trade, p. 57; Thomas, World Without End, p. 251.
20. B. Laufer, ‘The Relations of the Chinese to the Philippine Islands’, in Flynn, Giráldez and Sobredo, eds., European Entry, pp. 65–6, 89–91 (original edition: Smithsonian Institution, Miscellaneous Collections, vol. 50, no. 13 (1907), pp. 258–9, 282–4).
21. David Abulafia, The Great Sea: a Human History of the Mediterranean (London, 2011), p. 74.
22. Schurz, Manila Galleon, pp. 23, 27–9, 34–42.
23. F. Carletti, My Voyage around the World, ed. and transl. H. Weinstock (London, 1965), pp. 4–5.
24. Ibid., pp. 69–70.
25. Ibid., pp. 71, 74–6, 78.
26. Ibid., pp. 79–80.
27. Ibid., pp. 82, 89.
28. Ibid., pp. 83–8.
29. Ibid., pp. 96–7.
30. Ibid., pp. 90–91, 100.
31. Map in R. Bertrand, Le Long Remords de la conquête: Manille–Mexico–Madrid, l’affaire Diego de Ávila (1577–1580) (Paris, 2015), pp. 58–9; Giráldez, Age of Trade, p. 84; Fish, Manila–Acapulco Galleons, pp. 65–72.
32. Thomas, World Without End, p. 252.
33. Laufer, ‘Relations of the Chinese’, pp. 55–65 (pp. 248–58).
34. Giráldez, Age of Trade, pp. 26–8; Fish, Manila–Acapulco Galleons, p. 111.
35. Laufer, ‘Relations of the Chinese’, p. 85 (p. 278).
36. Ibid., p. 75 n. 1 (p. 268 n. 1); Schurz, Manila Galleon, p. 63 n. 1.
37. William Dampier’s description, Canton, 1687, in Schurz, Manila Galleon, pp. 70–71; Giráldez, Age of Trade, p. 160; Schurz, Manila Galleon, pp. 74–8.
38. Schurz, Manila Galleon, pp. 71–2; Giráldez, Age of Trade, p. 161; Fish, Manila–Acapulco Galleons, pp. 109–10.
39. Cited in Schurz, Manila Galleon, pp. 73–4.
40. Diego de Bobadilla, cited in Schurz, Manila Galleon, p. 74.
41. C. Boxer, ‘Plata es Sangre: Sidelights on the Drain of Spanish-American Silver in the Far East, 1550–1700’, in Flynn, Giráldez and Sobredo, eds., European Entry, p. 172 (original edition: Philippine Studies, vol. 18 (1970), p. 464); D. Flynn and A. Giráldez, ‘Arbitrage, China, and World Trade in the Early Modern Period’, in Flynn, Giráldez and Sobredo, eds., European Entry, pp. 261–80 (original edition: Journal of the Economic and Social History of the Orient, vol. 38 (1995), pp. 429–48).
42. Laufer, ‘Relations of the Chinese’, p. 63 (p. 256).
43. Flynn and Giráldez, ‘Arbitrage, China, and World Trade’, pp. 262–3 (pp. 431–2); von Glahn, Economic History of China, pp. 308–9.
44. Giráldez, Age of Trade, pp. 31–2.
45. Cited in von Glahn, Economic History of China, p. 308.
46. Fish, Manila–Acapulco Galleons, p. 115.
47. Schurz, Manila Galleon, pp. 79–81.
48. Schurz, Manila Galleon, pp. 83–4; Laufer, ‘Relations of the Chinese’, pp. 68–9 (pp. 261–2); Fish, Manila–Acapulco Galleons, p. 126.
49. Cavite: Fish, Manila–Acapulco Galleons, pp. 128–42, 156–86.
50. Schurz, Manila Galleon, pp. 85–90.
51. Extracts of Antonio de Morga and Ming Annals in Laufer, ‘Relations of the Chinese’, pp. 74–9 (pp. 267–72); Schurz, Manila Galleon, p. 91 and n. 6.
52. Schurz, Manila Galleon, pp. 68–9; Thomas, World Without End, pp. 260–82; Laufer, ‘Relations of the Chinese’, p. 68 (p. 261).
53. Thomas, World Without End, p. 282.
54. J. L. Gasch-Tomás, The Atlantic World and the Manila Galleons: Circulation, Market, and Consumption of Asian Goods in the Spanish Empire, 1565–1650 (Leiden, 2018).
55. A. Coates, A Macao Narrative (2nd edn, Hong Kong, 2009), pp. 17–30; R. Neild, The China Coast: Trade and the First Treaty Ports (Hong Kong, 2010), pp. 25–31, 94–5.
56. Schurz, Manila Galleon, pp. 66–7.
57. Chuan, ‘Chinese Silk Trade’, p. 250 (p. 108).
58. Schurz, Manila Galleon, pp. 100–102.
59. R. Kowner, From White to Yellow: the Japanese in European Racial Thought, 1300–1735 (Montreal, 2014), pp. 152, 154; Schurz, Manila Galleon, pp. 116–18; Giráldez, Age of Trade, p. 106.
60. Kowner, From White to Yellow, p. 177; Schurz, Manila Galleon, pp. 111–13.
61. Schurz, Manila Galleon, pp. 108–12.
62. W. de Lange, Pars Japonica: the First Dutch Expedition to Reach the Shores of Japan (Warren, Conn., 2006); G. Milton, Samurai William: the Adventurer Who Unlocked Japan (London, 2002), pp. 65–87.
63. Giráldez, Age of Trade, pp. 107–8; Milton, Samurai William, pp. 109, 122–4.
64. S. Endo, The Samurai, transl. Van C. Gessel (New York, 1980).
65. Van C. Gessel, ‘Postscript: Fact and Truth in The Samurai’, in Endo, Samurai, pp. 268–70.
66. Schurz, Manila Galleon, pp. 125–8; Giráldez, Age of Trade, pp. 107–9.
67. T. Toyoda, History of pre-Meiji Commerce in Japan (Tokyo, 1969), pp. 37–46, 59.
68. Milton, Samurai William, pp. 174–205.
69. Schurz, Manila Galleon, p. 120.
70. Schurz, Manila Galleon, p. 115; Giráldez, Age of Trade, pp. 106, 189–90.
35. The Black Ships of Macau
1. D. Massarella, A World Elsewhere: Europe’s Encounter with Japan in the Sixteenth and Seventeenth Centuries (New Haven, 1990), p. 19.
2. C. R. Boxer, Fidalgos in the Far East 1550–1770 (2nd edn, Hong Kong, 1968), p. 7.
3. J. Wills, ‘Maritim
e Europe and the Ming’, in J. Wills, ed., China and Maritime Europe, 1500–1800: Trade, Settlement, Diplomacy, and Missions (Cambridge, 2011), pp. 26–7, 29–31; A. Coates, A Macao Narrative (2nd edn, Hong Kong, 2009), pp. 11–12.
4. Armando Cortesão, transl. and ed., The Suma Oriental of Tomé Pires (London, 1944), vol. 1, pp. 128–131: Lequíos and Jampon; Massarella, World Elsewhere, pp. 22–3; G. Kerr, Okinawa: the History of an Island People (2nd edn, Boston and Tokyo, 2000), pp. 84, 88, 90–94; C. R. Boxer, The Christian Century in Japan 1549–1650 (2nd edn, Lisbon and Manchester, 1993), p. 14.
5. Cited by Boxer, Christian Century, pp. 16–17; see also Wills, ‘Maritime Europe and the Ming’, pp. 26–8.
6. Boxer, Christian Century, p. 27.
7. Coates, Macao Narrative, pp. 12–13.
8. Diogo de Couto (1597) in Boxer, Christian Century, pp. 24–5; also Massarella, World Elsewhere, p. 24; Kowner, From White to Yellow, p. 65.
9. Boxer, Christian Century, pp. 28, 30.
10. Japanese chronicle Yaita-ki, quoted in Boxer, Christian Century, p. 29.
11. Wills, ‘Maritime Europe and the Ming’, pp. 32–4.
12. Coates, Macao Narrative, p. 50.
13. Wills, ‘Maritime Europe and the Ming’, p. 37.
14. Boxer, Christian Century, p. 255.
15. Coates, Macao Narrative, pp. 25–30; Boxer, Fidalgos, p. 3; Wills, ‘Maritime Europe and the Ming’, pp. 38, 41, 47–8; L. P. Barreto, Macau: Poder e Saber, séculos XVI e XVII (Queluz de Baixo, 2006), pp. 215–16; cf. F. Welsh, A History of Hong Kong (2nd edn, London, 1997), pp. 120–31.
16. Boxer, Fidalgos, p. 4; Wills, ‘Maritime Europe and the Ming’, p. 35.
17. Wills, ‘Maritime Europe and the Ming’, p. 37.
18. F. Carletti, My Voyage around the World, ed. and transl. H. Weinstock (London, 1965), p. 139.
19. Barreto, Macau, p. 116.
20. Wills, ‘Maritime Europe and the Ming’, p. 47.
21. Ibid., p. 42.
22. Carletti, My Voyage, p. 140; Barreto, Macau, pp. 138–41.
23. Barreto, Macau, p. 117.
24. Cited in Boxer, Fidalgos, p. 6; also in Boxer, Christian Century, pp. 105–6.
25. C. R. Boxer, The Great Ship from Amacon: Annals of Macao and the Old Japan Trade, 1555–1640 (Lisbon, 1959), p. 17.
26. Boxer, Christian Century, plate 14; N. Coolidge Rousmaniere, Vessels of Influence: China and the Birth of Porcelain in Medieval and Early Modern Japan (Bristol and London, 2012), p. 109.
27. Boxer, Great Ship from Amacon, pp. 13–14 and p. 13 n. 34.
28. For example, A. Jackson, ‘Visual Responses: Depicting Europeans in East Asia’, in A. Jackson and A. Jaffer, Encounters: the Meeting of Asia and Europe 1500–1800 (London, 2004), pp. 202–3, plate 16.1; Boxer, Great Ship from Amacon, plate opposite p. 20; Boxer, Christian Century, plates 13, 15.
29. For example, Boxer, Great Ship from Amacon, p. 35; also Boxer, Christian Century, p. 121.
30. Barreto, Macau, pp. 145, 160–61, 193, 220.
31. Boxer, Great Ship from Amacon, p. 47.
32. Ibid., pp. 34–5; Boxer, Christian Century, p. 100; Barreto, Macau, p. 143.
33. Barreto, Macau, p. 141.
34. M. Meilink-Roelofsz, Asian Trade and European Influence in the Indonesian Archipelago between 1500 and about 1630 (The Hague, 1962), pp. 104–5, 134.
35. R. von Glahn, The Economic History of China from Antiquity to the Nineteenth Century (Cambridge, 2016), pp. 308–11.
36. Prodotti e tecniche d’Oltremare nelle economie europee, secc. XIII–XVIII (Florence, 1998); Barreto, Macau, p. 273.
37. Meilink-Roelofsz, Asian Trade and European Influence, pp. 123–4.
38. Boxer, Great Ship from Amacon, pp. 33–4, 317–18 (doc. E.ii, 1567–8).
39. Ibid., p. 115.
40. J. Moran, The Japanese and the Jesuits: Alessandro Valignano in Sixteenth-Century Japan (London, 1993), p. 67.
41. On Ricci: R. Po-chia Hsia, A Jesuit in the Forbidden City: Matteo Ricci 1552–1610 (New York and Oxford, 2010); R. Po-chia Hsia, Matteo Ricci and the Catholic Mission to China, 1583–1610: a Short History with Documents (Indianapolis, 2016); M. Laven, Mission to China: Matteo Ricci and the Jesuit Encounter with the East (London, 2011); also C. R. Boxer, The Church Militant and Iberian Expansion 1440–1770 (Baltimore, 1978), pp. 53–6.
42. Barreto, Macau, p. 141.
43. Boxer, Christian Century, p. 97.
44. Ibid., p. 120; Barreto, Macau, p. 141.
45. Cited in Boxer, Christian Century, p. 93.
46. Kowner, From White to Yellow, pp. 84, 128–35, 166–70; Barreto, Macau, p. 139: Luís de Almeida.
47. Boxer, Christian Century, pp. 139–49, 152–3; also Carletti, My Voyage, pp. 116–25.
48. Moran, Japanese and Jesuits, pp. 58–9, 62–3, 70, 89–90.
49. Carletti, My Voyage, p. 116.
50. Ibid., pp. 104–5.
51. Ibid., pp. 105–8, 121–4, 127–35.
52. Ibid., pp. 108–13; Barreto, Macau, p. 165.
53. Carletti, My Voyage, p. 132.
54. Coolidge Rousmaniere, Vessels of Influence, pp. 78, 81, 87–92, 101–3.
55. Ibid., pp. 64, 130–35, 161; T. Nagatake, Classic Japanese Porcelain: Imari and Kaikemon (Tokyo, 2003), pp. 49–50, 60–63.
56. Carletti, My Voyage, pp. 114–16.
57. S. Hawley, The Imjin War: Japan’s Sixteenth-Century Invasion of Korea and Attempt to Conquer China (Seoul and Berkeley, 2005), pp. 301–48.
58. Cited in Hawley, Imjin War, p. 465.
59. Hawley, Imjin War, pp. 475–6.
60. Ibid., pp. 193, 195–9, and plate section, pp. vi–vii.
61. Ibid., pp. 482–90.
62. Ibid., p. 515.
63. Ibid., pp. 490, 554–5.
64. T. Toyoda, History of pre-Meiji Commerce in Japan (Tokyo, 1969), pp. 40–41, 49, 53–4.
65. Ibid., p. 43.
66. Letter cited in Hawley, Imjin War, p. 402; Boxer, Christian Century, p. 161; Moran, Japanese and Jesuits, p. 91.
67. Moran, Japanese and Jesuits, pp. 83–4.
68. Ibid., pp. 84–5, 89.
69. Barreto, Macau, p. 173.
70. Moran, Japanese and Jesuits, p. 86.
71. J. Clements, Christ’s Samurai: the True Story of the Shimabara Rebellion (London, 2016).
72. Boxer, Great Ship from Amacon, pp. 158–61.
36. The Fourth Ocean
1. R. Vaughan, The Arctic: a History (Stroud, 1994), p. 36, plate 3.
2. Ibid., p. 37.
3. Cited in G. Connell-Smith, Forerunners of Drake: a Study of English Trade with Spain in the Early Tudor Period (London, 1954), p. 121 (dating from 1540); R. B. Wernham, Before the Armada: the Growth of English Foreign Policy 1485–1588 (London, 1966).
4. T. S. Willan, Studies in Elizabethan Foreign Trade (Manchester, 1959), pp. 92–312.
5. H. Dalton, Merchants and Explorers: Roger Barlow, Sebastian Cabot, and Networks of Atlantic Exchange 1500–1560 (Oxford, 2016), pp. 29–33, 49–62; ‘Robert Thorne’s Declaration’, in Richard Hakluyt, Voyages and Documents, ed. J. Hampden (Oxford, 1958), pp. 17–19; G. Williams, Arctic Labyrinth: The Quest for the Northwest Passage (London, 2009), pp. 7–8; H. Wallis, ‘England’s Search for the Northern Passages in the Sixteenth and Early Seventeenth Centuries’, Arctic, vol. 37 (1984), pp. 453–5; N. Crane, Mercator: the Man Who Mapped the Planet (London, 2002), colour plates, section 2, no. 4.
6. A. de Robilant, Venetian Navigators: the Mystery of the Voyages of the Zen Brothers to the Far North (London, 2011).
7. Wallis, ‘England’s Search’, p. 457.
8. Hakluyt, Voyages and Documents, pp. 40, 44–5; Williams, Arctic Labyrinth, p. 8; J. Evans, Merchant Adventurers: the Voyage of Discovery That Transformed Tudor England (London, 2013).
9. Williams, Arctic Labyrinth, p. 9; K. Mayers, The First English Explorer: the Life of Anthony Jenkinson (1529–1611) and His Adventures en Route to the Orient (Northam, Devon, 2015), p.
49.
10. Williams, Arctic Labyrinth, pp. 9–10; Vaughan, Arctic, p. 58; K. Mayers, North-East Passage to Muscovy: Stephen Borough and the First Tudor Explorations (Stroud, 2005); S. Alford, London’s Triumph: Merchant Adventurers and the Tudor City (London, 2017), pp. 80–91, 130–41.
11. Mayers, First English Explorer, pp. 237–49; Alford, London’s Triumph, pp. 132–41.
12. Mayers, First English Explorer, p. 244.
13. Vaughan, Arctic, p. 59.
14. A Plancius map is on display in the Real Colegio Seminario de Corpus Christi (Museo del Patriarca), Valencia; J. Tracy, True Ocean Found: Paludanus’s Letters on Dutch Voyages to the Kara Sea, 1595–1596 (Minneapolis, 1980), pp. 20–23.
15. J. de Hond and T. Mostert, Novaya Zemlya (Rijksmuseum, Amsterdam, n.d.); inventory of contents quoted in Vaughan, Arctic, pp. 62–3.
16. L. Hacquebord, De Noordse Compagnie (1614–1642): Opkomst, bloei en ondergang (Zutphen, 2014); I. Sanderson, A History of Whaling (New York, 1993), pp. 161, 164.
17. Vaughan, Arctic, p. 64.
18. Wallis, ‘England’s Search’, pp. 457–60.
19. Williams, Arctic Labyrinth, pp. 13–15; P. Whitfield, New Found Lands: Maps in the History of Exploration (London, 1998), pp. 78–9 (with illustration of Humphrey Gilbert’s world map).
20. J. McDermott, Martin Frobisher: Elizabethan Privateer (New Haven, 2001); Alford, London’s Triumph, pp. 158–76.
21. Williams, Arctic Labyrinth, p. 16; G. Williams, ed., The Quest for the Northwest Passage (London, 2007), p. 7.
22. G. Best, A True Discourse of the Late Voyage of Discovery for Finding a Passage to Cathaya (London, 1578), in Williams, ed., Quest for the Northwest Passage, p. 8.
23. Christopher Hall, ‘The First Voyage of Martin Frobisher’, in Hakluyt, Voyages and Documents, p. 153.
24. D. Abulafia, The Discovery of Mankind: Atlantic Encounters in the Age of Columbus (New Haven, 2008), p. 245.
25. C. F. Hall reporting in 1865, cited by Vaughan, Arctic, p. 69; Williams, ed., Quest for the Northwest Passage, pp. 19, 30, 529–30.
26. Hall, ‘First Voyage of Martin Frobisher’, in Hakluyt, Voyages and Documents, pp. 153–4; ‘The Second Voyage of Martin Frobisher’, from Best’s True Discourse, in Hakluyt, Voyages and Documents, pp. 175, 178; Best, True Discourse, in Williams, ed., Quest for the Northwest Passage, pp. 17, 18; Williams, Arctic Labyrinth, pp. 20, 22.
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