The Thirty-Year Genocide

by Benny Morris

  4. Nationalist Government, “Certain Facts with Reference to the Greek Rebellion in the Pontus and the Steps Taken by the Turkish Government,” undated but from May 1922, Bodl. MS Toynbee Papers 50.

  5.

  McCarthy,

  Death and Exile, 288–289.

  6.

  Atatürk, Speech Delivered by Ghazi Mustapha Kemal, 528.

  7.

  Eken,

  Kapancızade Hamit Bey, 42.

  8. Bristol to SecState, 18 November 1921, USNA RG 59, 860J.4016 / 50–860J.4016P81 / 99, Roll 5.

  9. Heathcote- Smith, “Pontine Republic,” 15 July 1919, attached to Gough- Calthorpe to Curzon, 25 July 1919, UKNA FO 371 / 4158; and Shaw, From Empire to Republic, vol. 2, 593.

  10. Lt. Col. Ian Smith, General Staff “Intelligence,” GHQ Army of the Black Sea, “Report on Situation in Samsun- Amasia district,” 13 July 1919, UKNA FO 371 / 4158.

  Notes to Pages 383–388

  11.

  Atatürk, Speech Delivered by Ghazi Mustapha Kemal, 9–10.

  12.

  Cebesoy,

  Milli Mücadele Hatıraları, 49.

  13. Even Shaw was unable to demonstrate any substantial Ottoman Greek support for Pontic separatism (Shaw, From Empire to Republic, vol. 2, 582–585).

  14. Rendel, “Turkish Massacres and Persecutions of Minorities since the Armistice,” 20 March 1922, UKNA FO 371 / 7876.

  15. White to Robbins, 18 November 1921, USNA RG 59, 867.4016, Roll 46.

  16. Ralph Chesbrough, “Report on the Po liti cal, Military, Commercial and Economic Situation in Trebizond and the Surrounding Vilayets,” 3 August 1919, attached to Ravndal to SecState, 18 August 1919, USNA RG 59, 867.00, Roll 7.

  17.

  Shaw,

  From Empire to Republic, vol. 2, 592–593.

  18. The high figure is given by Rendel, “Atrocities in Asia Minor Etc. Protests Received by His Majesty’s Government, and Action Taken,” 28 December 1921, UKNA FO 371 / 7875.

  19. Eliot (Athens) to FO, 26 July 1915, UKNA FO 371 / 2487.

  20. Morgenthau to wife, 7 December 1915, FDRL, HM Sr. Papers, Letters 473, quoting Tsamados, the Greek ambassador to Constantinople.

  21. Unsigned, “Persecution and Annihilation of the Makri and Livissi Communities,” undated, but prob ably from early 1919, attached to Gates to Heck, 4 February 1919, USNA RG 84, Turkey (Constantinople), Vol. 400. Almost all the Christians in the area were Greek.

  22. Gough- Calthorpe to Balfour, 3 February 1919, and attached memorandum by “Representatives of Makri and Livissi,” L. Eliou, R. Mousseos, and A. Stamatiades, “Persecution and Annihilation of the Makri and Livissi Communities,” 27 January 1919, UKNA FO 371 / 4172.

  23. Greek Patriarchate, “Persecution of the Greeks in Turkey, 1914–1918,” undated but prob ably from 1919, Bodl. MS Toynbee Papers 57 (hereafter cited as Greek Patriarchate, “Persecution of the Greeks . . . ,”), 94–96, report from 2 February 1915.

  24. Morgenthau to wife, 7 December 1915, FDRL, HM Sr. Papers, Letters 473, quoting Tsamados, the Greek ambassador to Constantinople.

  25. Eliot (Athens) to FO, 26 July 1915, UKNA FO 371 / 2487.

  26. Greek Ministry of Foreign Affairs, “Persecutions of the Greek Population in Turkey Since the Beginning of the Eu ro pean War According to Official Reports of Hellenic Diplomatic and Consular Agents,” 1918, 11, quoting Greek consul in Konia, dispatch from 7 March 1917, Bodl. MS Toynbee Papers 57 (hereafter cited as Greek Foreign Ministry, “Persecutions of the Greek Population . . .”).

  27. Hofmann, “Cumulative Genocide,” 92–93.

  28. Rendel, “Memorandum by Mr. Rendel on Conversation with Col. Rawlinson on 23rd May 1922,”

  24 May 1922, UKNA FO 371 / 7878.

  29. Hofmann, Bjornlund, and Meichanetsidis, eds., Genocide of the Ottoman Greeks, 1.

  30.

  Einstein,

  Inside Constantinople, entries for 3, 15, 17, and 19 May 1915, pp. 19, 44, 48, and 51–52.

  31. Greek Patriarchate, “Persecution of the Greeks . . . ,” 63 and 48–49.

  32. Entry for 12 July 1915, Morgenthau, United States Diplomacy on the Bosphorus, 275; and Einstein, Inside Constantinople, entry for 28 July 1915, 202–203.

  33. Allen to Ravndal, 5 March 1915, U.S. Official Rec ords, 493; and Akçam, Shameful Act, 107.

  34. Greek Patriarchate, “Persecution of the Greeks . . . ,” 42–44.

  35. Memorandum, prob ably by Greek Patriarchate, “Evacuation of the Diff er ent Towns and Villages and Violent Manner of Expelling their Inhabitants,” undated but attached to Morgenthau to SecState, 10

  August 1915, USNA RG 59, 867.4016, Roll 43.

  36. Greek Patriarchate, “Persecution of the Greeks . . . ,” 19–20.

  Notes to Pages 388–392

  37. Memorandum, prob ably by Greek Patriarchate, “Evacuation of the Diff er ent Towns and Villages and Violent Manner of Expelling their Inhabitants,” undated but attached to Morgenthau to SecState, 10

  August 1915, USNA RG 59, 867.4–16, Roll 43.

  38. Greek Patriarchate, “Persecution of the Greeks . . . ,” 49.

  39. Greek Patriarchate, “Persecution of the Greeks . . . ,” 83.

  40. Greek Patriarchate, “Persecution of the Greeks . . . ,” 109.

  41. Youssouf Kemal to patriarch, undated but c. June 1915, in Greek Patriarchate, “Persecution of the Greeks . . . ,” 142.

  42. Henry Morgenthau to family, 22 July 1915, FDRL, HM Sr. Papers, Letters 475.

  43. Morgenthau to “Folks,” 17 May 1915, FDRL, HM Sr. Papers, Letters 474.

  44. Morgenthau to SecState, 10 August 1915, USNA RG 59, 867.4016, Roll 43.

  45.

  Talât to mutasarrif of Eskişehir, 9 August 1915, Sevk ve Iskan, 208, doc. 150.

  46. Report by the Greek Legation, Constantinople, 8 September 1915, in Greek Foreign Ministry,

  “Persecutions of the Greek Population . . . ,” 31; and Greek Patriarchate, “Persecution of the Greeks . . . ,”

  9–10 and 23.

  47. Hofmann, “Cumulative Genocide,” 56.

  48. Greek Patriarchate, “Persecution of the Greeks . . . ,” 33–35.

  49. Jackson (Washington DC), untitled memorandum, 4 March 1918, USNA RG 59, 867.4016, Roll 46.

  50. An American missionary to “friends,” Erzurum, 26 February 1916, Houghton ABC 16.9.7, A467, Reel 716.

  51. Greek Foreign Ministry, “Persecutions of the Greek Population . . . ,” 33 (report by Greek Legation in Petrograd, 30 August 1916); and Greek Patriarchate, “Persecution of the Greeks . . . ,” 110–111.

  52. Greek Patriarchate, “Persecution of the Greeks . . . ,” 127.

  53. Greek Patriarchate, “Persecution of the Greeks . . . ,” 100–105, quoting letter of 15 December 1916 from the metropolitan.

  54. Hofmann, “Cumulative Genocide,” 57–58.

  55. Greek Patriarchate, “Persecution of the Greeks . . . ,” 112–113, quoting letter from Chrysostomos, 12 October 1918.

  56. British intelligence, “Refet Pasha (Ali Refet Pasha),” undated, UKNA FO 371 / 6501; and Greek Patriarchate, “Persecution of the Greeks . . . ,” 120.

  57. Lt. Earl Zimmer, USS Olympia, to CO, 8 September 1919, USNA RG 59, 867.00, Roll 7.

  58. Greek Foreign Ministry, “Persecutions of the Greek Population . . . ,” 34–37, quoting Greek Legation in Constantinople reports from 14 and 29 January and 7 and 29 February 1917. For the Amasya and Eliaz- Keuy deportations, see Greek Patriarchate, “Persecution of the Greeks . . . ,” 120.

  59. Ralph Chesbrough, “Report on Po liti cal, Economic and Commercial Conditions at Samsoun and Surrounding Districts and Possibilities of Future Commercial Possibilities,” 8 August 1919, USNA RG

  59, 867.00, Roll 7.

  60. Greek Patriarchate, “Persecution of the Greeks . . . ,” 127. Greek Foreign Ministry, “Persecutions of the Greek Population . . . ,” 37.

  61. Germanos to Mary Graffam, 20 December 1916, and Graffam to Peet, 24 December 1
916, both in LC, HM Sr. Papers, Reel 22; and Greek Foreign Ministry, “Persecutions of the Greek Population . . . ,”

  13; and Greek Patriarchate, “Persecution of the Greeks . . . ,” 120–121.

  62.

  Zimmer,

  USS

  Olympia to CO, 8 September 1919, USNA RG 59, 867.00, Roll 7.

  63. Hofmann, “Cumulative Genocide,” 58; and Toynbee, Western Question, 144.

  64. Greek Foreign Ministry, “Persecutions of the Greek population . . . ,” 39–40, based on reports from Greek Legation, Constantinople, 24 April and 1 May 1917; and Greek Patriarchate, “Persecution of the Greeks . . . ,” based on reports from the priests of the dioceses to patriarchate, 67.

  Notes to Pages 392–396

  65. Gough- Calthorpe to Balfour, 3 February 1919, and attached memorandum “Persecution and Annihilation of the Makri and Livissi Communities,” UKNA FO 371 / 4172.

  66. Greek Patriarchate, “Persecution of the Greeks . . . ,” 59–60.

  67. Quoted in Hofmann, “Cumulative Genocide,” 59.

  68.

  Suny,

  They Can Live in the Desert, 213.

  69. A. A. Pallis in “Minutes of the 34th Meeting between the A.G.S. [Armenian- Greek Section] and the Armenian and Greek Representatives,” 10 March 1920, UKNA FO 371 / 5087.

  70. De Robeck to Curzon, 29 March 1920, and Pallis, Greek High Commission, Constantinople, balance sheet for 1919, 17 February 1920, both in UKNA FO 371 / 5087.

  71. Hofmann, “Cumulative Genocide,” 102–103, gives vari ous figures, but most observers appear to have arrived at this estimate.

  72. Horton to Bristol, 23 January 1920, USNA RG 59, 867.00, Roll 8.

  73. Horton to Bristol, 10 February 1920, USNA RG 84, Turkey (Constantinople), Vol. 424.

  74. FO to Granville, 21 November 1918, and Cecil to Gough- Calthorpe, 15 November 1918, both in UKNA FO 371 / 3417.

  75. Webb to FO, 1 January 1919, UKNA FO 371 / 4172.

  76. Interior Ministry to valis and mutesarrifs, 5 November 1918, Sevk ve Iskan, 399–401, doc. 342.

  77. Interior Ministry to vali of Hüdavendigȃr (Bursa), 24 December 1918, Sevk ve Iskan, 411–412, doc. 349; and Interior Ministry memo, 26 December 1918, Sevk ve Iskan, 412–417, doc. 350.

  78. Webb to Balfour, 13 January 1919, and Heathcote- Smith, “Repatriation of Greeks, Preliminary Specimen Cases Illustrating the Repatriation Prob lem,” undated, both in UKNA FO 371 / 4172.

  79. C. E. Heathcote- Smith, “Report on Ayvali,” 23 February 1919, and C. R. Hadkinson to Se nior Naval Officer, Smyrna, 13 January 1919, both in UKNA FO 371 / 4157.

  80. Perring to High Commissioner, 5 March 1919, UKNA FO 371 / 4157.

  81. Gough- Calthorpe to Balfour, 8 February 1919, and attached Godfrey Wittall, “Report on the Repatriation of Ottoman Greeks at Pendik, Kartal and Maltepe,” 30 January 1919, UKNA FO 371 / 4177.

  82. Webb to Balfour, 14 March 1919, and attached memorandum to[?] Heathcote- Smith, “Repatriation,” 23 February 1919, UKNA FO 371 / 4177. Heathcote- Smith recommended the transfer inland of the muhacirs along the coast. This proposed exchange was never ratified or implemented.

  83. P. E. King, apparently of the American Tobacco Com pany, to Heck, 11 January 1919, and King to Heck, 13 January 1919, both in UKNA FO 371 / 4157; and Lt. Harty to General Staff Officer, Constantinople, 21 January 1919, USNA RG 84, Turkey (Constantinople), Vol. 408.

  84.

  Eken,

  Kapancızade Hamit Bey, 43.

  85. Lt. F. W. P. Slade (RNVR), reports from Castamouni and Eregli, from mid- June 1919, UKNA FO 371 / 4158; and A. Hadkinson, relief officer, “Report on the Following Places Visited between the 25th April and 20th May 1919, Tchataldja, Chorlu . . . [in] Adrianople [vilayet],” 22 May 1919, UKNA FO 371 / 4157. See also report on Greek atrocities in Çatalca, 25 November 1919, BOA, DH. EUM. SSM, 39 / 38.

  86. White, NER, to Ravndal, Constantinople, 20 June 1919, USNA RG 59, 867.00, Roll 7.

  87. Capt. M. A. B. Johnson, Smyrna, reports on Budrum, Mughla, Scala Nouva, and repatriation, 7

  May 1919, UKNA FO 371 / 4157.

  88. A. Hadkinson, relief officer, “Report on the Following Places Visited between the 25th April and 20th May 1919, Tchataldja, Chorlu . . . [in] Adrianople [vilayet],” 22 May 1919, UKNA FO 371 / 4157.

  See also Security directorate report on Greek atrocities in Çatalca, 25 November 1919, BOA, DH. EUM.

  SSM, 39 / 38.

  89. “Copy of Report Dated 1st May [1919] from Intelligence Officer, Sochia,” and Greek and Turkish reports on the affair, UKNA FO 371 / 4157.

  Notes to Pages 396–400

  90. Ottoman Foreign Ministry to Heck, 27 February 1919, USNA RG 84, Turkey (Constantinople), Vol. 408.

  91. Deedes, “Meeting with Hamdi Bey, the Director of Refugee Department, Ministry of Interior, February 14th, 1919,” UKNA FO 371 / 4177.

  92. Pallis, “Report on the Greek Central Relief Commission’s Balance- Sheet for the Year 1919,” 17

  February 1920, USNA RG 84, Turkey (Constantinople), Vol. 424; and de Robeck to Curzon, 29

  March 1920, UKNA FO 371 / 5087.

  93. Horton to Bristol, 10 February 1920, USNA RG 84, Turkey (Constantinople), Vol. 424.

  94. Bristol to Eliot Mears, Trade Commissioner, Dept. of Commerce, DC, 19 November 1920, USNA RG 84, Turkey (Constantinople), Vol. 424.

  95. Bristol to Horton, 10 January 1920, USNA RG 84, Turkey (Constantinople), Vol. 408.

  96. Horton to Bristol, 17 March 1920, USNA RG 84, Turkey (Constantinople), Vol. 421.

  97. Horton to Bristol, 23 April 1920, USNA RG 84, Turkey (Constantinople), Vol. 421.

  98. Caffery to ?, c. 25 March 1923, USNA RG 84, Turkey (Constantinople), Vol. 484; and entry for 9 April 1923, Bristol War Diary, USNA RG 59, 867.00, Roll 14.

  99. Lt. N. W. Harty, Samsun, 25 January 1919, USNA RG 84, Turkey (Constantinople), Vol. 408.

  100. British Control Officer in Uzun Keupru Sector E.R.A.A. Grout to Col o nel Samson, 28

  March 1919, UKNA FO 371 / 4157.

  101. Capt. E. LaFontaine, Kadikeuy, to Capt. Holand, 1 April 1919, UKNA FO 371 / 4157.

  102. “Anti- Greek Persecutions in Turkey 1908–1921, Statements Submitted to the Third National Assembly in Athens, Sessions 5th, 6th and 8th April, 1921,” London 1921, UKNA FO 2371 / 6535.

  103. Rendel, “Turkish Massacres and Persecutions of Minorities since the Armistice,” 20 March 1922, quoting a report by Lt. Slade from 11 September 1919, UKNA FO 371 / 7876.

  104. Rendel, “Turkish Massacres and Persecutions of Minorities since the Armistice,” 20 March 1922, quoting a report by de Robeck from 11 November 1919, UKNA FO 371 / 7876.

  105. Representatives of 51 communities to high commissioners (?), 7 March 1920, USNA RG 84, Turkey (Constantinople), Vol. 419.

  106. Capt. J. S. Perring (Samsun), to ?, 31 March 1920, and attached reports, UKNA FO 371 / 5047.

  107. Perring to ?, 3 June 1920, UKNA FO 371 / 5050.

  108. Unsigned, “Situation at Ordou,” undated but attached to Webb to Curzon, 15 May 1920, UKNA FO 371 / 5048.

  109. Pinkney Tuck to SecState, 29 July 1920, USNA RG 59, 867.00, Roll 9.

  110. Tuck (Samsun) to Bristol, 9 July 1920, USNA RG 59, 867.00, Roll 10. On developments in the Ankara parliament, see Eken, Kapancızade Hamit Bey, 585–586.

  111. “Summary of Report from the Bishop of Dercos (Therapia) dated 15th March 1920,” UKNA FO 371 / 5213.

  112. Webb to FO (?), 25 April 1920, UKNA FO 371 / 5047.

  113. James Morgan, Smyrna, to High Commissioner, 31 March 1920, UKNA FO 371 / 5133.

  114. Sefal, Turkish Foreign Ministry, to De Robeck, 29 March 1920, UKNA FO 371 / 5133.

  115. The Inter- Allied Report from 1921 is quoted in Rendel, “The Turkish Massacres . . . ,” 20

  March 1922, UKNA FO 371 / 7876. See also petition sent to De Robeck by Armenians and Greeks of Adapazarı, 22 July 1920, UKNA FO 371 / 5054.

  116. “Minutes of th
e 41st Meeting of the A.G.S. and the Armenian and Greek Representatives,” 30

  June 1920, UKNA FO 371 / 5214. See also Atatürk, Speech Delivered by Ghazi Mustapha Kemal, 371–372.

  117. A.G.S., “Memorandum,” 20 October 1920, UKNA FO 371 / 5057.

  118. “Minutes of the 37th Meeting of the A.G.S and the Armenian and Greek Representatives,” 5

  May 1920, UKNA FO 371 / 5213.

  Notes to Pages 400–403

  119. “Minutes of the 47th Meeting of the A.G.S. & Armenian and Greek Representatives,” 29 September 1920, UKNA FO 371 / 5214.

  120. De Robeck to Curzon, 6 August 1920, UKNA FO 371 / 5214.

  121. Lucien Wolf to undersecretary of state, FO, 27 July 1920; and E. C. Hole, Smyrna, to High Commissioner, 19 October 1920, both in UKNA FO 371 / 5272. Eventually, the Jews reached Smyrna (Committee of Inhabitants of Aidin, Nazli etc. to Lloyd George, 12 November 1920, UKNA FO