The Thirty-Year Genocide

by Benny Morris

  genocide, 5–6, 115–21, 492–96. See also

  192–94; E. Riggs on, 190; massacre in, 79–84.

  Conversions to Islam; Jihad, invocations of;

  See also Mamuret- ül- Aziz, deportations from

  Muslims

  Hartunian, Abraham, 117, 294, 446

  Ismail Bey (col o nel), 57, 59

  Hasan Pasha, 86

  Ismail Bey, Süleyman (Turkish officer), 305

  Hassanbeyli, French evacuation of, 351

  Ismet Bey (envoy to Turkestan), 289

  Hatzianestis, George, 284

  İsmet Pasha (general), 371–72

  Hauger, G., 348

  Istanbul, population of, 373

  Haydar Bey, 205–6, 207, 208, 376

  Izmir. See Smyrna

  Hayri, Mustafa, 148

  Izmit: deportations from, 217–19, 401–3, 414;

  Heathcote- Smith, C. E., 393, 394

  Greek atrocities in, 477–78, 480; massacres in,

  Heck, Lewis, 302

  219, 402–3

  Heizer, Oscar, 183–84, 186

  İznik, massacre in, 403

  Hemingway, Ernest, 453

  İzzet Pasha, Ahmet, 8, 319

  Henderson, Nevile, 290

  Hepburn, Arthur Japy, 438, 439–40, 442, 444,

  Jäckh, Ernst, 130

  446, 451

  Jackson, Jesse B.: on Aleppo, 166; on anti- Christian

  Herbert, Michael, 105, 106–7, 124

  propaganda, 459; on Armenian re sis tance, 210;

  Herian, Rupen, 313

  on brigandage near Antep, 345; deportations

  Hilmi, Ibrahim, 152

  and, 169–70, 231, 238, 405, 415–16; deportees

  Hilmi Bey (Erzurum), 201

  and, 188, 195, 233–34, 235, 236; on emigration,

  Hilmi Pasha (commissioner of inquiry, Yozgat),

  362, 370; on extermination of Armenians, 361;

  51–52

  on Maraş Armenians, 340–41; on massacres,

  Hitler, Adolf, 245, 246, 499

  242; on persecutions of Christians, 457; on

  Hofmann, Tessa, 487

  returnees, 306; on Urfa, 207–8, 209

  Hohler, Thomas, 302

  Jacobsen, Maria, 192

  Hole, E. C., 435, 447, 483

  Jaquith, Harold, 425, 426–28, 438, 460

  Holocaust, 245–46, 499–505

  Jebejian, Sarkis, 356

  Holstein, Walter, 201

  Jeppe, Karen, 316

  Horton, George: on boycott, 153; on deporta-

  Jewett, Milo A., 52–55, 54–54

  tions, 151, 153, 154; on Greek occupation,

  Jihad, invocations of: at Erzurum Congress,

  430; on return of deportees, 393, 397; on

  275–76; by Hayri, 148; by Kemal, 299–300,

  Smyrna, 438, 441, 442, 449; on Stergiadis,

  342–43; by Ottoman authorities, 5, 495

  433

  Jillson, Jeannie, 428

  Hosford, Donald, 413, 427

  Johansson, Alma, 195, 258

  Hovannisian, Richard, 491

  Johnson, Frank, 337

  Index

  Kâhya, Hassan, 357

  190; in Eğin, 108–9; massacres by, 185–86,

  Kâmil Pasha, Mahmud, 159, 176, 179–80

  374, 375; rapes and abductions by, 122;

  Karageuzian, Setrag, 319

  re sis tance by, 417; in Sason, 54–55, 56–57, 64;

  Karakol, 272

  in Van, 103, 104; as witnesses to massacres,

  Kavak Gorge, massacre at, 408

  63–64

  Kayseri: deportations from, 224–26; massacre in,

  Kwiatkowski, Ernst von, 183, 185

  96; refugees from Smyrna in, 448–49

  Kâzim Pasha, 445

  Labor batallions, 157–58, 159–60, 247, 250, 358,

  Kellerian, Kourkin, 178–79

  387, 404, 448

  Kelsey, Francis, 324

  Lake Gölcük, massacres by, 1–3

  Kemah Gorge, massacres at, 178, 179, 179

  Lamb, Harry, 482

  Kemal, Mustafa (Ataturk): on anti- Armenian

  Lambert, R. A., 340

  campaign, 329; on Armenian Genocide, 4;

  League of Nations, 314

  armistice signed by, 350; Assyrians and, 380;

  Legion Armenienne, 321–23, 334

  Christian communities and, 403–4, 496;

  Leonardopoulos, Georgios, 483

  complaints about French by, 327; condemna-

  Lepsius, Johannes, 132, 178

  tion to death of, 283; CUP and, 273, 274; on

  Leslie, Elvesta, 208

  deportations, 405; de Robeck on, 299; on

  Leslie, Francis H., 205, 207

  evacuations, 368, 369; French occupation and,

  Lichtheim, Richard, 222

  35–337, 333, 334–35, 337; German

  Lilidas, Cosmos, 423

  ultranationalists and, 499; as hero of Gallipoli,

  Liman von Sanders, Otto, 156, 157–58, 213, 215,

  273; as inspector general, 273–74; invocations

  388, 391

  of jihad by, 299–300, 342–43; Islam and, 5,

  Lindley, Francis, 469

  493; lands desired for Turkey by, 278;

  Lloyd George, David, 267–68, 284, 285, 287,

  massacres and, 329; on massing of Greeks,

  291, 318, 323, 429

  382, 383, 384; on minorities issue, 280; on

  Longworth, Henry Z., 52, 71, 73, 74, 75, 76–77,

  missionaries, 576n318; mobilization drive by,

  114, 133

  342; organ ization by, 272; Picot and, 328;

  Lutfi Pasha, 95

  Rumbold on, 278–79, 300; in Smyrna, 437,

  Lyman, James, 340, 341

  438–39; on Treaty of Lausanne, 292; on

  Wilson, 288. See also Nationalists

  Macallum, F. W., 128, 129

  Kemal, Yusuf (Youssouf ), 358–59, 413, 415

  Macedonia, Muslims in, 470

  Kemal Bey, 319

  MacLachlan, Alexander, 440

  Kemalists. See Nationalists

  Malamatinis, Mrs. John, 154

  Keregian, Armenag, 356

  Malatya, deportation from, 368

  Kerr, Stanley, 313

  Maljian, Pascal, 339

  Kevorkian, Raymond, 169, 180, 182, 229, 312,

  Mallet, Louis du Pan, 153

  377, 486, 497

  Maloyan, Ignatius, 201

  Khalil Bey, 374, 376

  Mama Hatun, massacre at, 178–79, 180

  Kilis: emigration from, 364; migration from Antep

  Mamuret- ül- Aziz, deportations from, 190–98.

  to, 350; return of deportees to, 327

  See also Harput

  Knapp, George, 411

  Maps: of deportations, 174; of Franco- Turkish

  Knapp, J. Herbert, 411, 422–23

  war, 297; of Greco- Turkish war, 384; of

  Knauss, H. E., 436–37, 438, 448

  massacres, 53, 140, 174, 216; of Syrian desert,

  Konya: American hospital in, 218, 220;

  240; of Turkey, 18

  deportations from, 222–24

  Maraş: consequences of battle and massacre in,

  Künzler, Jakob, 206

  341–45; deportations from, 167, 169–70, 341,

  Kurds: Armenian in de pen dence movement and,

  358, 361; expulsions from, 292; French

  40, 41, 42–43; attacks by, 91, 112–14; as

  occupation of, 332–38; French withdrawal

  blamed for massacres, 63; Christians and, 35,

  from, 338–41; massacres in, 77–79, 335–37,

  36–37, 38–39, 45, 46, 65; CUP and, 296;

  341; Muslim fanat i cism in, 46; return of

  deportations of, 621n13; deserters among,

  Armenians to, 340–41

>   Index

  Mardin: Assyrians in, 377; deportations from,

  proportion of population, 292; in rural

  201; expulsions from, 473–74; persecutions in,

  communities, 33–39; sectarianism and, 41–42.

  372

  See also Brigand bands, Muslim; Muhacirs;

  Mardovan, Der Hohanes, 59

  Softas

  Marsden, J. K., 189

  Mustafa Pasha (military court judge), 52

  Maxwell, Arthur, 443

  Mustafa Pasha, Nemrud Kurd, 320–21

  Mazhar Bey, Hasan, 221

  Mustapha Pasha (commandant at Harput), 110

  McCarthy, Justin, 382, 487–88

  McGregor, P. J. C., 116

  Nadamlenzki, Arthur, 216, 217

  Mehmet VI Vahdettin, 277, 286

  Nail Bey, 181, 183, 185

  Meinertzhagen, Richard, 323

  Nansen, Fridtjof, 448, 468–70

  Merrill, A. S., 438, 445

  Nationalism, Armenian and Greek: after WWI,

  Merrill, John, 168, 171

  268; parties as proxies of Eu ro pean powers,

  Mersin, refugees in, 362, 365, 461–62, 463,

  49; paths toward, 25–33; Pontic movement,

  464, 474

  381–84; as rationale for genocide, 489; as

  Merzifon, massacres in, 96, 411–13

  response to oppression, 48–49; rise of, 20;

  Migration: after WWI and War of In de pen dence,

  urban communities and, 21–24

  296; of Christians to Rus sia, 36, 39; following

  Nationalism, Turkish, 137–38, 493–94, 497

  massacres, 127–30, 196; of Muslims to

  Nationalists: allegations of Armenian atrocities by,

  Ottoman Empire, 33–34, 34, 142, 143,

  330–32, 338; arrest and exile of, 320; Britain

  149–50; of Ottiman Greeks, 148–55; to Syria,

  and, 277–79, 283, 285–86, 290, 401–2, 455;

  370–71

  Bursa takeover by, 277; Christian minorities

  Military: as exempt from deportations, 223, 250;

  and, 271, 272, 280–81, 289–90; denunciation

  Ottoman Armenians in, 157–60. See also Greek

  of Ward- Yowell allegations by, 426–27;

  army; Labor batallions

  Erzurum Congress of, 274–76; evacuations

  Millerand, Alexandre, 347

  and, 368–69; expulsions to Greece and, 456;

  Millet system, 22, 30

  France and, 279–80, 283–84, 288–89, 290,

  Mills, Caris, 313

  328, 358–59, 361; French garrisons besieged

  Mills, Minnie, 439, 446

  by, 324; Greece and, 284; Greeks and, 399;

  Missionaries. See Christian missionaries

  guerrilla campaign of, 267–69, 328, 329, 332,

  Morgenthau, Henry, 155; on Armenians, 247; on

  333–35, 337–38, 344; Mustafa Pasha

  CUP and Christians, 495–96; deportations

  denouncement of, 320–21; in Neutral Zone,

  and, 154, 217–18, 231, 237, 389; on massacre

  455; organ izations of, 272; policy of, 406; as

  of labor battalions, 160; Near East Relief and,

  religious in character, 274; as resurrection of

  306; Refugee Settlement Commission and,

  CUP, 273; Rus sia and, 283, 289; Sivas

  472; on threat to destroy Smyrna, 442; on Van

  Congress of, 276; Sultanate and, 286; treaty to

  countryside, 162; on wealthy buying survival,

  end WWI and, 283. See also Kemal, Mustafa

  203

  (Ataturk)

  Mosul, deportees in, 238

  National Pact of 1920, 274, 276–77

  Mudanya Armistice, 286, 455

  Nazif Pasha, 87, 88, 89

  Mugerditchian, Thomas, 199

  Nâzim Bey, Selanikli Mehmet, 7–8, 176, 191, 224,

  Muhacirs, 149–50, 154, 166, 168, 169,

  560n2

  172–73, 388

  Near East Relief (NER): deportations and, 306–7,

  Munif Bey, Ali, 228

  313, 355, 367, 368, 417–18; insurance claim

  Murdoch, Bessie Bannerman, 422–23

  filed by, 445; orphans and, 424, 459;

  Musadağ, re sis tance in, 209–11, 210

  population exchange and, 472; restrictions on

  Muslims: Christian communities and, 3, 19–20,

  operations of, 425; Samsun refugees and, 462;

  109, 110–11, 257; Christian women married

  temporary shelters of, 421

  to, 255, 256–57, 259–60, 499–500; clerics, in

  Nestorians. See Assyrians (Syriacs, Chaldeans,

  assaults on Armenians, 68, 69; in Crete, 483; in

  Nestorians)

  Macedonia, 470; migration of, to Ottoman

  Nicolson, Harold, 496

  Empire, 33–34, 34, 142, 143, 149–50; as

  Nihad (Nihat) Pasha, 272, 295

  Index

  Nimet, Şakir, 329

  Police and gendarmes, 45, 68, 398–99

  Nubar, Boghos, 347

  Po liti cal fear, role of, in massacres of 1894–1896,

  Nureddin Pasha, 406, 407, 410, 437, 438, 439

  114–15

  Nuri Bey, Mehmet, 190

  Population- exchange agreement between Greece

  Nusret Bey, 320, 321

  and Turkey, 467–72, 474

  Post, Wilfred: on Bursa and Konya, 220; on

  Orphans: in Aleppo, 234–36, 235; in Anatolia,

  deportations from Konya, 224; on proclama-

  317; care for and integration of, 260; in

  tion of holy war, 148; on refugees in

  Constantinople, 317; emigration of, 130;

  Constantinople, 465; on Smyrna, 437, 438,

  eviction of, from orphanages, 428; expulsions

  439, 442, 443, 447

  and, 459; in Harput, 84; missionaries and, 103;

  Powell, Halsey, 438, 451–52

  Near East Relief and, 424, 459; recovery of,

  Prentiss, Mark, 441

  316; reeducation of, 255; relocation of, 362,

  Price, Philip, 165

  363, 368; Talât on, 260–61; in Van, 104

  Priests, torture and killing of, 59, 64, 117, 118,

  Osman Aga, 390, 401, 404, 405, 409, 412,

  200, 201, 417, 437

  413, 416

  Prisoners of war, Greek, mistreatment of,

  Osman Pasha, 51

  428–29

  Ottoman Bank Affair, 104–5

  Prisons, 45–46, 101, 126

  Ottoman Empire: allies of, 10; constitution of, 15;

  Protestants in Ottoman Empire, 29–30, 40

  division of, after WWI, 281–83; entry into

  WWI by, 155–56; Muslim immigrants to,

  Querette (general), 333, 334, 338, 339

  33–34, 34; open atmosphere in, 27; purging of

  archives of, 6–9, 11; rebellion against, 40–41;

  Racial explanations of Turkish be hav ior, 496

  religious communities of, 23; Rus sian invasion

  Radolin, Hugo von, 70

  of, 15, 16–17, 18; surrender of, 265. See also

  Rahmi Bey (vali of Smyrna), 213, 429, 441

  And specific cities; And specific provinces;

  Rahmi Pasha (general), 63

  Turkey

  Rail network in deportations, 213–14, 218,

  223, 228

  Pallavicini, Johann von, 183, 388

  Raouf Pasha, 128

  Palmer, C. E. S., 219, 221–22

  Rapes: of Assyrians, 372, 378–79; in convoys,

  Palu, massacre in, 92

  426; in Deir Zor camp, 242; of deportees, 169,

  Paris Peace Conference, 287, 373, 393, 455

  257; in Diyarbekir, 92; of evacuees,
370; of

  Peet, William, 323–24, 438, 447, 468

  Greeks, 386, 389, 390; in Harput, 81, 83; in

  Pellé, Maurice, 457, 469

  Maraş, 336; massacres of 1894–1896 and,

  Perpetrators: arrests and prosecutions of, 11,

  122–25; perpetration of, 498–99; in Sason, 59,

  317–21, 483, 505; list of, 498, 501–2; of

  60; in Smyrna, 437, 438, 441, 444; in Yozgat,

  massacres of 1894–1896, 66, 67; sexual abuse

  50, 52

  and, 498–99

  Rās al- ’Ayn (Rasulayn) camp, 237–38, 239

  Perring, John Shays, 304–5, 307, 311, 394

  Rationales for genocidal program: against

  Perry, James, 337

  Armenians, 171, 204, 489; of 1894–1896,

  Phanariotes, Ottoman Greeks as, 21–22

  112–21; against Greeks, 490; nationalism as,

  Phelps, Theda, 421

  489; overview of, 493–99; plunder as, 414–15,

  Picot, François Georges, 279, 328. See also

  497, 504; revenge as, 498

  Sykes- Picot agreement of 1916

  Rauf Bey, 124, 265, 275

  Piepape, Philipin de, 322

  Rawlinson, Alfred, 275

  Pirinççioğlu, Feyzi Bey, 199, 201, 239

  Raynolds, Mattie, 163, 164

  Plunder: of cemeteries, 116, 190, 302, 365, 367,

  Recovery of Christian women and children,

  454; of churches, 117–18; as rationale for

  311–17

  deportations, 414–15, 497, 504; in Smyrna,

  Reed, Cass Arthur, 307

  436–37, 439

  Refet Pasha, 456

  Poincaré, Raymond, 455

  Reforms: CUP and, 145–46; fear of, 114–15;

  Polad (Polat) Pasha, 338

  Tanzimat, 22, 27, 30, 37, 38

  Index

  Refugees: in Adana province, 362; aid for, 466; in

  Rus sia: Balkan Wars and, 142; Christian

  Aleppo vilayet, 366–67; in Alexandretta, 462,

  migration to, 36, 39; Christian militias backed

  463, 464–65; children as, 418; class and

  by, 160–61; eastern Anatolia offensive by, 389;

  degree of suffering of, 461, 464; in Constanti-

  Enver offensive against, 156–57; German

  nople, 463–64, 465; on docks, 462; Greece

  invasion of, 245; invasion of Ottoman Empire

  and, 365, 463–64, 465–67, 470, 472; in

  by, 15, 16–17, 18; Nationalists and, 283, 289;

  Kayseri, 448–49; in Mersin, 362, 365, 461–62,

  Ottoman border with, 155–56; as threat to

  463, 464, 474; Muslim, in Ottoman Empire,

  Ottomans, 148, 489; Trabzon capture by, 186;

  142, 143, 149–50; in Salonica, 466, 472; in

  treaty of friendship with, 283; troops from, in

  Samsun, 457–58, 462, 463, 464; in Smyrna,

  Van, 163, 164; Urmia province and, 374, 378,

  472; in Syria, 196; in Van town, 103. See also