Shadows of Forgotten Ancestors
Page 50
17. Thomas Henry Huxley, Evidence as to Mans Place in Nature (London and Edinburgh: Williams and Norgate, 1863), pp. 69, 70.
18. Ibid., p. 102.
19. Quoted in Monroe W. Strickberger, Evolution (Boston: Jones and Bartlett, 1990), p. 57.
20. Michael M. Miyamoto and Morris Goodman, “DNA Systematics and Evolution of Primates,” Annual Review of Ecology and Systematics 21 (1990), pp. 197–220. In humans the genes coding for beta-globins are on Chromosome 11.
21. M. Goodman, B. F. Koop, J. Czelusniak, D. H. A. Fitch, D. A. Tagle, and J. L. Slightom, “Molecular Phylogeny of the Family of Apes and Humans,” Genome 31 (1989), pp. 316–335; and Morris Goodman, private communication, 1992. Similar results are found from DNA hybridization studies: C. G. Sibley, J. A. Comstock and J. E. Ahlquist, “DNA Hybridization Evidence of Hominoid Phylogeny: A Reanalysis of the Data,” Journal of Molecular Evolution 30 (1990) pp. 202–236.
22. Based on data in Strickberger, op cit., pp. 227, 228.
23. E.g., Richard C. Lewontin, “The Dream of the Human Genome,” New York Review of Books, May 28, 1992, pp. 31–40. (This is, incidentally, an engaging critical review of the justifications offered for the project to map all of the roughly 4 billion nucleotides in human DNA, and is at variance with the views of many prominent molecular biologists). Also ref. 21.
24. Donald R. Griffin, “Prospects for a Cognitive Ethology,” Behavioral and Brain Sciences 1 (4) (December 1978), pp. 527–538.
25. Jane Goodall, The Chimpanzees of Gombe: Patterns of Behavior (Cambridge, MA: The Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, 1986); Goodall, Through a Window: My Thirty Years with the Chimpanzees of Gombe (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1990); Toshisada Nishida and Mariko Hiraiwa-Hasegawa, “Chimpanzees and Bonobos: Cooperative Relationships among Males,” Chapter 15 in Barbara B. Smuts, Dorothy L. Cheney, Robert M. Seyfarth, Richard W. Wrangham, and Thomas T. Struhsaker, editors, Primate Societies (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1986); Nishida, “Local Traditions and Cultural Transmission,” Chapter 38 in Smuts et al., eds., op. cit.; Nishida, editor, The Chimpanzees of the Mahale Mountains: Sexual and Life History Strategies (Tokyo: University of Tokyo Press, 1990); Frans de Waal, Chimpanzee Politics: Power and Sex among Apes (New York: Harper & Row, 1982); de Waal, Peacemaking among Primates (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1989).
26. B. M. F. Galdikas, “Orangutan Reproduction in the Wild,” in C. E. Graham, editor, Reproductive Biology of the Great Apes (New York: Academic Press, 1981), pp. 281–300.
27. Anne C. Zeller, “Communication by Sight and Smell,” Chapter 35 of Barbara B. Smuts, Dorothy L. Cheney, Robert M. Seyfarth, Richard W. Wrangham, and Thomas T. Struhsaker, editors, Primate Societies (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1986), p. 438.
28. Jane Goodall, The Chimpanzees of Gombe: Patterns of Behavior, (Cambridge, MA: The Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, 1986), p. 368.
29. Very much the vengeance that—in the horrifying close to one of the most beautiful of the Psalms—the Israelites during the Babylonian exile proposed visiting on the children of their captors:
O daughter of Babylon, who art to be destroyed; happy shall he be, that rewardeth thee as thou hast served us.
Happy shall he be, that taketh and dasheth thy little ones against the stones.
—Psalm 137, verses 8 and 9
30. Janis Carter, “A Journey to Freedom,” Smithsonian 12 (April 1981), pp. 90–101.
31. Goodall, The Chimpanzees of Gombe, pp. 490, 491.
32. Thomas, op. cit. (ref. 8), p. 22.
33. Euripides, The Trojan Women, in The Medea, Gilbert Murray, translator (New York: Oxford University Press, 1906), p. 59.
Chapter 16
LIVES OF THE APES
1. In Greg Whincup, editor and translator, The Heart of Chinese Poetry (New York: Anchor Press/Doubleday, 1987), p. 48.
2. The principal sources for unattributed details on chimpanzee life in Chapters 14, 15, and 16 are Goodall, Nishida, and de Waal: Jane Goodall, The Chimpanzees of Gombe: Patterns of Behavior (Cambridge, MA: The Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, 1986); Goodall, Through a Window: My Thirty Years with the Chimpanzees of Gombe (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1990); Toshisada Nishida and Mariko Hiraiwa-Hasegawa, “Chimpanzees and Bonobos: Cooperative Relationships among Males,” Chapter 15 in Barbara B. Smuts, Dorothy L. Cheney, Robert M. Seyfarth, Richard W. Wrangham, and Thomas T. Struhsaker, editors, Primate Societies (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1986); Nishida, “Local Traditions and Cultural Transmission,” Chapter 38 in Smuts et al., eds., op. cit.; Nishida, editor, The Chimpanzees of the Mahale Mountains: Sexual and Life History Strategies (Tokyo: University of Tokyo Press, 1990); Frans de Waal, Chimpanzee Politics: Power and Sex among Apes (New York: Harper & Row, 1982); de Waal, Peacemaking among Primates (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1989). Also other chapters of Smuts, et al.
3. Chapter III, verse 1.
4. Frans de Waal, Peacemaking among Primates (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1989), p. 49.
5. Frans de Waal, Chimpanzee Politics: Power and Sex among Apes (New York: Harper & Row, 1982), pp. 37, 38.
6. Here is Darwin’s argument about pink bottoms in the season of love:
“In the discussion on Sexual Selection in my ‘Descent of Man,’ no case interested and perplexed me so much as the brightly-coloured hinder ends and adjoining parts of certain monkeys. As these parts are more brightly coloured in one sex than the other, and as they become more brilliant during the season of love, I concluded that the colours had been gained as a sexual attraction. I was well aware that I thus laid myself open to ridicule; though in fact it is not more surprising that a monkey should display his bright-red hinder end than that a peacock should display his magnificent tail. I had, however, at that time no evidence of monkeys exhibiting this part of their bodies during their courtship; and such display in the case of birds affords the best evidence that the ornaments of the males are of service to them by attracting or exciting the females.… Joh. von Fischer, of Gotha … finds that not only the mandrill but the drill and three other kinds of baboons, also Cynopithecus niger, and Macacus rhesus and nemestrinus, turn this part of their bodies, which in all these species is more or less brightly coloured, to him when they are pleased, and to other persons as a sort of greeting. He took pains to cure a Macacus rhesus, which he had kept for five years, of this indecorous habit, and at last succeeded. These monkeys are particularly apt to act in this manner, grinning at the same time, when first introduced to a new monkey, but often also to their old monkey friends; and after this mutual display they begin to play together …
“[T]he habit with adult animals is connected to a certain extent with sexual feelings, for Von Fischer watched through a glass door a female Cynopithecus niger, and she during several days, ‘turned and displayed her intensely reddened backside while making gurgling sounds—something I had never before observed in this animal. Seeing this, the male grew agitated; he vigorously rattled the bars of the cage, likewise emitting gurgling noises’ [this quotation was cautiously rendered by Darwin in the original German and is translated here]. As all the monkeys which have the hinder parts of their bodies more or less brightly coloured live, according to Von Fischer, in open rocky places, he thinks that these colours serve to render one sex conspicuous at a distance to the other; but, as monkeys are such gregarious animals, I should have thought there was no need for the sexes to recognise each other at a distance. It seems to me more probable that the bright colours, whether on the face or hinder end, or, as in the mandrill, on both, serve as a sexual ornament and attraction.” (Charles Darwin, “Supplemental Note on Sexual Selection in Relation to Monkeys,” Nature, November 2, 1876, p. 18.)
7. R. M. Yerkes and J. H. Elder, “Oestrus, Receptivity and Mating in the Chimpanzee,” Comparative Psychology Monographs 13 (1936), pp. 1–39.
8. Helen Fisher, “Monogamy, Adultery, and Divorce in Cross-Species Perspective,” in Michael H. Robin
son and Lionel Tiger, editors, Man and Beast Revisited (Washington and London: Smithsonian Institution Press, 1991), p. 98.
9. de Waal, Peacemaking among Primates, p. 82.
10. Sarah Blaffer Hrdy, “The Primate Origins of Human Sexuality,” in Robert Bellig and George Stevens, eds., Nobel Conference XXIII: The Evolution of Sex (San Francisco: Harper & Row, 1988), pp. 112 ff.
11. Kelly J. Stewart and Alexander H. Harcourt, “Gorillas: Variation in Female Relationships,” Chapter 14 of Barbara B. Smuts, Dorothy L. Cheney, Robert M. Seyfarth, Richard W. Wrangham, and Thomas T. Struhsaker, editors, Primate Societies (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1986), p. 163.
12. Work of Nicholas Davies in the U.K., described by Stephen Emlen, private communication, 1991.
13. Emily Martin, “The Egg and the Sperm: How Science Has Constructed a Romance Based on Stereotypical Male-Female Roles,” Signs: Journal of Women in Culture and Society 16 (1991), pp. 485–501.
14. This is less true to the extent that the attributes of the sperm cells are determined by the fathers genes, and not the DNA instructions for making the next generation that the sperm cell itself is carrying. Sperm competition will in any case be very important in those animals—primates prominent among them—where more than one male ejaculates in rapid succession into a given female.
15. Goodall, The Chimpanzees of Gombe, p. 366.
16. H[ippolyte] A. Taine, History of English Literature, translated by H. van Laun, second edition (Edinburgh: Edmonston and Douglas, 1872), Volume I, p. 340.
17. Jacqueline Goodchilds and Gail Zellman, “Sexual Signaling and Sexual Aggression in Adolescent Relationships,” in Pornography and Sexual Aggression, Neil Malamuth and Edward Donnerstein, editors (New York: Academic Press, 1984).
18. Neil Malamuth, “Rape Proclivity among Males,” Journal of Social Issues 37 (1981), pp. 138–157; Malamuth, “Aggression against Women: Cultural and Individual Causes,” in Malamuth and Donnerstein, editors, op. cit.
19. The most comprehensive national survey was sponsored by the National Victim Center and the Crime Victims Research and Treatment Center of the Medical University of South Carolina, with financial support from the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. See David Johnston, “Survey Shows Number of Rapes Far Higher than Official Figures,” New York Times, April 24, 1992, p. A14.
20. Bondage and rape are popular themes in pornography designed for male audiences in, e.g., Britain, France, Germany, South America, and Japan, as well as the United States. A recurrent subject of Japanese pornographic movies is the rape of a high school girl (Paul Abramson and Haruo Hayashi, “Pornography in Japan,” in Malamuth and Donnerstein, editors, op. cit.).
21. Robert A. Prentky and Vernon L. Quinsey, Human Sexual Aggression: Current Perspectives, Volume 528 of the Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences (New York: New York Academy of Sciences, 1988); Howard E. Barbaree and William L. Marshall, “The Role of Male Sexual Arousal in Rape: Six Models,” Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology 59 (1991), pp. 621–630; Gene Abel, J. Rouleau, and J. Cunningham-Rather, “Sexually Aggressive Behavior,” in Modern Legal Psychiatry and Psychology, A. L. McGarry and S. A. Shah, editors (Philadelphia: Davis, 1985); Gene Abel, quoted in Faye Knopp, Retraining Adult Sex Offenders: Methods and Models (Syracuse, NY: Safer Society Press, 1984), p. 9.
22. E.g., Lee Ellis, “A Synthesized (Biosocial) Theory of Rape,” Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology 59 (1991), pp. 631–642.
23. E.g., Susan Brownmiller, Against Our Will: Men, Women and Rape (New York: Simon & Schuster, 1975); Judith Lewis Herman, “Considering Sex Offenders: A Model of Addiction,” Signs: Journal of Women in Culture and Society 13 (1988), pp. 695–724.
24. Lee Ellis, Theories of Rape (New York: Hemisphere, 1989).
25. Peggy Reeves Sanday, “The Socio-Cultural Context of Rape: A Cross-Cultural Study,” Journal of Social Issues 37 (1981), pp. 5–27.
Chapter 17
ADMONISHING THE CONQUEROR
1. (London and Edinburgh: Williams and Norgate, 1863), p. 105.
2. Sarah Blaffer Hrdy, “Raising Darwin’s Consciousness: Females and Evolutionary Theory,” in Robert Bellig and George Stevens, editors, Nobel Conference XXIII: The Evolution of Sex (San Francisco: Harper & Row, 1988), p. 161.
3. John Paul Scott, “Agonistic Behavior of Primates: A Comparative Perspective,” in Ralph L. Holloway, editor, Primate Aggression, Territoriality, and Xenophobia: A Comparative Perspective (New York: Academic Press, 1974), especially p. 427; Shirley C. Strum, Almost Human: A Journey into the World of Baboons (New York-Random House, 1987).
4. Dorothy L. Cheney, “Interactions and Relationships Between Groups,” Chapter 22 in Barbara B. Smuts, Dorothy L. Cheney, Robert M. Seyfarth, Richard W. Wrangham, and Thomas T. Struhsaker, editors, Primate Societies (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1986), p. 281.
5. Solly Zuckerman, The Social Life of Monkeys and Apes (New York: Harcourt, Brace, 1932), pp. 49, 50.
6. Solly Zuckerman, From Apes to Warlords (New York: Harper & Row, 1978), p. 39.
7. Ibid., p. 12.
8. F. W. Fitzsimons, The Natural History of South Africa, Volume 1, Mammals (London: Longmans, Green, 1919), quoted in Zuckerman, The Social Life of Monkeys and Apes, p. 293.
9. Zuckerman, From Apes to Warlords, pp. 220, 219, and footnote, p. 220.
10. Zuckerman, The Social Life of Monkeys and Apes, pp. 228, 229.
11. Ibid., p. 237.
12. Scott, op. cit.; H. Kummer, Social Origin of Hamadryas Baboons (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1968).
13. Zuckerman, From Apes to Warlords, p. 41.
14. Ibid., p. 42.
15. Zuckerman, The Social Life of Monkeys and Apes, p. 148.
16. Hrdy, op. cit. (ref. 2), p. 163.
17. Donna Robbins Leighton, “Gibbons: Territoriality and Monogamy,” Chapter 12 in Smuts et al., eds., op. cit., pp. 135–145.
18. Randall Susman, editor, The Pygmy Chimpanzee: Evolutionary Biology and Behavior (New York: Plenum, 1984).
19. Frans de Waal, Peacemaking among Primates (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1989), p. 181.
20. Toshisada Nishida and Mariko Hiraiwa-Hasegawa, “Chimpanzees and Bonobos: Cooperative Relationships among Males,” Chapter 15 in Smuts et al., op. cit., p. 167.
21. Charles Darwin, The Descent of Man and Selection in Relation to Sex (New York: The Modern Library, n.d.) (originally published in 1871) pp. 396, 397. Both Pliny and Aelian wrote about wine-imbibing apes who could be captured when drunk.
22. Edward O. Wilson, Sociobiology: The New Synthesis (Cambridge, MA: The Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, 1975), p. 538.
23. Irenäus Eibl-Eibesfeldt, The Biology of Peace and War. Men, Animals, and Aggression, translated by Eric Mosbacher (New York: The Viking Press, 1979) (originally published in 1975 as Krieg und Frieden by R. Piper, München), p. 108.
24. Paul D. MacLean, “Special Award Lecture: New Findings on Brain Function and Sociosexual Behavior,” Chapter 4 in Joseph Zubin and John Money, editors, Contemporary Sexual Behavior. Critical Issues in the 1970s (Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins University Press, 1973), p. 65.
25. Barbara B. Smuts, “Sexual Competition and Mate Choice,” Chapter 31 in Barbara B. Smuts, Dorothy L. Cheney, Robert M. Seyfarth, Richard W. Wrangham, and Thomas T. Struhsaker, editors, Primate Societies (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1986), p. 392.
26. Sarah Blaffer Hrdy, “The Primate Origins of Human Sexuality,” in Robert Bellig and George Stevens, editors, Nobel Conference XXIII: The Evolution of Sex (San Francisco: Harper & Row, 1988).
27. Alison F. Richard, “Malagasy Prosimians: Female Dominance,” Chapter 3 in Smuts et al, eds., op. cit., p. 32. Reference for quotation within passage: A. Jolly, “The Puzzle of Female Feeding Priority,” in M. Small, ed., Female Primates: Studies by Women Primatologists (New York: Alan R. Liss, 1984), p. 198.
28. Toshisada Nishida and Mariko Hiraiwa-Hasegawa, “Chimpanzees and Bon
obos: Cooperative Relationships among Males,” Chapter 15 in Smuts et al., eds., op. cit., p. 174.
29. Mireille Bertrand, Bibliotheca Primatologica, Number 11, The Behavioral Repertoire of the Stumptail Macaque: A Descriptive and Comparative Study (Basel: S. Karger, 1969), p. 191.
30. Frans de Waal, Peacemaking among Primates (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1989), pp. 153, 154.
31. Frank E. Poirier, “Colobine Aggression: A Review,” in Ralph L. Holloway, editor, Primate Aggression, Territoriality, and Xenophobia: A Comparative Perspective (New York and London: Academic Press, 1974), pp. 146–147, 130–131, 140–141.
32. Sherwood L. Washburn, “The Evolution of Human Behavior,” in John D. Roslansky, editor, The Uniqueness of Man (Amsterdam: North-Holland, 1969), p. 170.
33. Robert M. Seyfarth, “Vocal Communication and Its Relation to Language,” Chapter 36 in Smuts et al., eds., op. cit., pp. 444, 450, 445.
34. P. D. MacClean, “New Findings on Brain Function and Sociosexual Behavior,” in Contemporary Sexual Behavior, Zubin and Money, eds., op. cit.
35. Solly Zuckerman, The Social Life of Monkeys and Apes (New York: Harcourt, Brace, 1932), p. 259.
36. Darwin, op. cit., p. 449.
37. Zuckerman, op. cit., p. 474.
38. Patricia L. Whitten, “Infants and Adult Males,” Chapter 28 in Smuts et al., eds., op. cit., pp. 343, 344.
Chapter 18
THE ARCHIMEDES OF THE MACAQUES
1. Translated by John Dryden and revised by Arthur Hugh Clough (New York: The Modern Library, 1932), pp. 378, 379.
2. Work of Wendy Bailey and Morris Goodman; private communication from Morris Goodman, 1992. See also ref. 12.
3. Michael M. Miyamoto and Morris Goodman, “DNA Systematics and Evolution of Primates,” Annual Review of Ecology and Systematics 21 (1990), pp. 197–220.
4. Marc Godinot and Mohamed Mahboubi, “Earliest Known Simian Primate Found in Algeria,” Nature 357 (1992), pp. 324–326.