Public Sector Transformation Through E-Government
Page 23
cesses (5.21 percent), and electronic surveys of opinion using sampling
techniques (1.04 percent).
Nevertheless, the presence of e-participation research is still scarce,
only making up 1.42 percent of all published articles in JCR-listed jour-
nals (see Table 10.3 in Appendix 10.1). In this regard, whereas there is a clear preference for three journals in the fi
field of communication to
publish this type of research, with 71.23 percent of the articles being
published in New Media and Society, Journal of Communication,
and Media Culture and Society, in the fi
field of public administration
there is a preference for four journals, Public Administration Review,
Administration and Society, American Review of Public Administra-
tion, and Public Administration, which together account for 63.46
percent of the articles published. In the case of information science
and library sciences journals, 79.03 percent of the articles published
were found in journals such as Social Science Computer Review, Aslib
Proceedings, Government Information Quarterly, and Information
and Society.
With respect to analyses of e-participation in the USA, half of the arti-
cles are published in journals in the fi
fields of public administration ( Public
Administration Review and Administration and Society), and communi-
cation ( New Media and Society and Journal of Communication), while
almost half of the articles dealing with e-participation in Europe are pub-
lished in journals focusing on public administration ( Public Administration
and Local Government Studies) and information science ( Social Computer
Review and Aslib Proceedings).
4.2 Methodologies Used, Areas of
Knowledge and Journal Preferences
In the United States, the percentage of empirical studies (88.73 per-
cent; 63/71), is lower than that corresponding to European studies
(93.7 percent; 60/64) (see Table 10.5 in Appendix 10.1). However, the opposite occurs concerning e-participation studies; in the United States,
52.52 percent of published articles used quantitative methods, whereas
in Europe, 75 percent of the methods used were qualitative. In addi-
tion, the prevailing methodology used in the United States changed
in 2002, while in Europe such a change did not seem to take place
until 2008.
As shown in Table 10.6 in Appendix 10.1, in European studies, the
research topics of e-community (40 percent), e-democracy (42.86 per-
cent), e-decision making (69.23 percent), e-governance (66.67 percent),
and e-deliberation (66.67 percent) are the most frequently analyzed and
discussed, with case studies being used as the qualitative methodology.
However, in the case of U.S. studies, the methodologies used were seen to
Profi
filing E-Participation Research in Europe and North America 127
be of a quantitative type, specifi
fically regression analysis, especially with
respect to e-campaigning (41.67 percent), e-community (63.63 percent),
e-consultation (50 percent), and e-deliberation (55.56 percent). In both
Europe and the United States, other methods were rarely used. In sum-
mary, European investigators tend to make more use of qualitative than
of quantitative methodologies, although there was seen to be a relative
change in 2008, while from 2002 U.S. researchers increasingly used quan-
titative methodologies in their analysis and research. In general, it seems
clear that quantitative statistical methodologies are being applied ever
more frequently.
In addition, the papers analyzed are mostly authored (61.83 percent; n =
131) by two or more colleagues, usually from the same university (68.70 per-
cent; n = 131), although it is not unusual to see collaboration among members
of diff
fferent universities, and also among universities in different countries.
The authors are mostly men, with just 24.27 percent of the authors in the
fi
field of e-participation being women (83 women vs. 259 men).
Also there is a specialized domain for authors in the fi
fields of communi-
cation (27.65 percent), public and policy science (26.11 percent), and pub-
lic administration (19.63 percent) (see Figure 10.2), although we observed the existence of heterogeneous knowledge areas such as computer science,
information science and library science. Moreover, the contribution of
practitioners in this area of research is almost testimonial (5.85 percent),
Figure 10.2 Academic departments which investigate e-participation.
128 Manuel Pedro Rodríguez Bolívar, et al.
with only eight articles, despite their practical vision and fi
first-hand knowl-
edge of the situation of many governmental agencies.
With respect to the subject preferences of leading journals, those focus-
ing on public administration are particularly interested in articles about
the use of decision-making tools to facilitate participation in the politi-
cian decision-making process and about participative consideration of
a political topic through reasoned discussion online. Communication-
oriented journals tend to highlight articles on the use of interactive
tools in political campaigns (see Table 10.7 in Appendix 10.1). In information science and library science journals, on the other hand, the
subject matter is more diverse: the Social Science Computer Review
is particularly interested in articles on improving the shape of societal
democracy with respect to participation, while the Aslib Proceedings
and Information and Society contains articles on e-campaigning and
e-deliberation, respectively.
5 CONCLUSIONS
E-participation has become the main issue addressed by some journals
(Raadschelders & Lee, 2010). Articles, using interactive tools based on
Web 2.0, seek to establish a framework for citizens’ participation in
governmental decision-making processes (Chang & Jacobson, 2010), in
order to achieve greater effi
fficiency, acceptance and legitimacy of political
processes and in the delivery of public services (Hui & Hayllar, 2010).
However, there remain several research areas that have yet to be
widely discussed, such as problems related to the different barriers
and restrictions limiting citizens’ access to these new interactive tools,
making their participation incomplete, and how the diff eren
ff
t strategies
implemented by governments can encourage this participation (Julnes &
Johnson, 2011). Due to the relevance to disabled and older people, this is
a research topic with high potential to be considered in the future, and it
should be analyzed deeply by the academic community.
These investigations should identify whether the accessibility poli-
cies implemented by public administrations are really accomplishing
with the access requirements and appropriated use of new technologies.
Also, these investigations should research the motives and perceptions
of disabled and older people on the advantages of new technologies and
if they own capacity and learning skills needed to be involved and
to
participate in the social aff
ffairs. Research should highlight the problems
to which citizens are faced, and whether these policies actually get to
meet the needs of these citizens, even to make comparisons between
governments in diff
fferent countries with the aim of identifying syner-
gies on good social policies and practices necessary to reduce this
digital divide.
Profi
filing E-Participation Research in Europe and North America 129
In addition, e-voting is another research topic that needs to receive
greater attention, not only during elections but also in contributing to
resolving other decisions (Kenski, 2005). In this regard, researchers
should show whether or not these technological tools are being used by
citizens in their daily lives, if they let citizens participate in decision-
making process of possible adjustment measures implemented by a gov-
ernment, favoring a better democracy or, conversely, if these technologies
are only used at specifi
fic times—general elections—where governments
put all the means available to the citizens, without this being maintained
over time.
Similarly, no studies have yet been made analyzing needs and difficulties
and barriers that citizens face as actors in e-participation processes (Saebo
et al., 2008). Empirical research has analyzed the policies implemented by
the government, but very few of them are actually focused on knowing
the opinion of citizens, and even analyzing their behavior in the use and
access to a new tool, identifying if there is really a symbiosis that could
enhance a two-way communication and participation between government
and citizens.
Our analysis shows that the evolution of e-participation bears cer-
tain similarities with that of e-government (Rodríguez Bolivar et al.,
2010). Both research areas combine diff
fferent disciplines, fi
fields and
research areas, features specifi
fic theories and methodologies, and thus
diverse methods and techniques are applied to the phenomenon in ques-
tion, which does not favor the maturing of the scientifi
fic discipline (Saebo
et al., 2008). Our study shows that these patterns in the evolution of
research vary between Europe and the United States. Thus, while the
subject matter examined is similar in both regions, the use of method-
ological tools is quite different.
The research carried out in Europe is characterized by the use of quali-
tative methods and, in particular, case studies, which usually off
ffer a
purely practical approach, lacking a theoretical base; this is characteristic
of a young research area (Sandford & Rose, 2007). Such studies make
use of surveys and content analysis, and conclude by presenting merely
descriptive data and opinions, thus refl
flecting a relatively shallow research
eff
ffort (Saebo et al., 2008).
However, in the United States, the methodologies used are mostly
quantitative, which requires the investigation of causal relations,
through a combination of statistical techniques such as regression analy-
sis and structural equation models, which produces more reliable and
robust results (Bailey, 1992). With this type of methodology, theoreti-
cal arguments can be created, enhancing understanding, on the basis of
empirical data corroborating deductive hypotheses, thus giving rise to
new theories and enriching existing ones. Both quantitative and quali-
tative studies are needed, but the latter tend to off
ffer the current state
of the art and they are usually very descriptive. Thus, the emphasis is
130 Manuel Pedro Rodríguez Bolívar, et al.
on improving the quality of existing descriptive work, and on fi llin
fi
g in
knowledge gaps.
Overall, e-participation studies bring together researchers from vari-
ous areas of knowledge, with different research traditions and methodol-
ogies, and encourage collaboration among diverse researchers, who seek
to obtain mixed theories common to various areas. This diversity and
heterogeneity could lead us to affi
ffirm that this is an emerging research
fi
field, in which each academic area has conducted researchers with its
own methodologies and research topics, taking place in the existence
of a variety of heterogeneous research topics, without achieving to the
scope of a maturity stage of this fi
field of knowledge in the immediate
future, since there is no proper basis and common theories that favor it.
In addition, our results indicate that far from obtaining synergies with
the participation of researchers from different research areas, what often
occurs is cooperation among researchers from the same university and
area of expertise.
Results of our study also indicate there is a need to improve the exist-
ing descriptive work, using more sophisticated research methods to pro-
vide an adequate response to governmental and social demands. Such
an improvement would require greater involvement by professionals,
in collaboration with scholars. However, this collaboration does not
exist (Rodríguez Bolivar et al., 2010). The participation of professionals
would enable greater understanding of the roles of key stakeholders in
e-participation: politicians, governmental institutions, businesses, and
even software providers. In this regard, there is a lack of research on
which all the parties involved are analyzed, especially on the opinions
of public policy makers, analyzing if they really believe in the potential
given to e-participation or, if by contrary, they are not convinced that
the citizen participation, new technologies and eff
fforts really enhance
the fl
flexibility of the public administrations promoting the democratic
process by fostering debate and discussion on important issues of
public interest.
In summary, e-participation is an immature fi
field of research, requir-
ing theoretical underpinning to its methodological approaches. The
overview provided by the present study could be considered a starting
point that would help researchers guide their future research projects,
through alliances with other scholars and interested professionals, seek-
ing to apply joint theories and methods, in response to social demands
within a dynamic, globalized environment, and thus support the devel-
opment of a theoretical framework for the application of e-participation
tools in order to enhance democracy and the formal political process,
by means of eff
ffective communication among citizens, politicians, pub-
lic offi
fficials and other stakeholders who may be aff
ffected by collective
decisions.
Profi
filing E-Participation Research in Europe and North America 131
APPENDIX 10.1
Table 10.1 Defi nitions of E-Participation Research T
<
br /> fi
opics
Table 10.2 Dimensions of E-Participation
Source: Macintosh (2004).
132 Manuel Pedro Rodríguez Bolívar, et al.
Table 10.3 Articles on E-Participation Found in Each JCR Journal (2000–2010)
Total e-Participation
Articles
USA
Europe
Abbreviated Journal Title
Articles
Articles
Excluded Articles Articles
PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION JOURNALS
PUBLIC ADMIN REV
743
10
2
8
0
ADMIN SOC
333
7
0
6
1
AM REV PUBLIC ADM
279
6
1
3
2
PUBLIC ADMIN
510
5
0
0
5
LOCAL GOV STUD
320
5
0
1
5
J PUBL ADM RES THEOR
332
3
1
1
1
GOVERNANCE
288
2
0
1
2
AUST J PUBLIC ADMIN
344
2
0
1
2
ENVIRON PLANN C
548
1
0
1
0
J SOC POLICY
308
1
0
0
1
POLICY SCI
169
1
0
0
1
INT REV ADM SCI
361
2
1
1
0
POLICY STUD J
308
1
0
1
0
PUBLIC MONEY MANAGE
432
1
0
0
1
PUBLIC MANAG REV
336
1
1
0
0
PUBLIC ADMIN DEVELOP
359
1
1
0
0
GEST POLIT PUBLIC
127
2
2
0
0
CAN PUBLIC ADMIN
216
1
1
0
0
TOTAL
6,313
52
10