Russo-Japanese War, 102–3, 105, 108, 111–12, 116, 118
Sino-Japanese War, 83, 89
Third, Port Arthur, 105, 107–8, 111, 114, 117–18
Fourth, 102, 118
Eleventh
Ichigo, 245
Wuhan, 202–3, 207
Yichang, 209–10, 215, 227
Fourteenth, 223, 224
Fifteenth, 225
Imphal, 235–38, 244
Eighteenth, 239
Twenty-first, 202, 245
Twenty-second, 210, 212
Twenty-third, 224, 245
Twenty-fifth, 217, 223
Twenty-eighth, 237
Thirty-first, 238
Thirty-second, 247, 248
Thirty-third, 244–45
See also China Garrison Army
army, Japan, 34, 69, 188, 254–55
in 1873, 29
in 1882, 53
in 1893, 72
in 1894, 81
in 1903, 107
in 1937, 188–89, 197
in 1937–1945, 235
à l’outrance philosophy, 132–33
asserts uniqueness, 134
characteristics of founders, 253
civilian control, 37
decisive battle idea, 100, 162, 252
established, 24
future war concepts, 125–26, 146, 150, 162, 256
legacy in Asia, 252, 262
locus of modernization, 26, 28, 135
strength, 67
See also general staff, army; war ministry
army air force, 154, 214–15, 231–32, 243–44, 288n25
army factionalism, 253
during 1930s, 176–78, 179
reaction to Chōshū domination of army, 65–66, 155–56
Terauchi Masatake, 130, 155
traditionalists-reformer factions, 125–26, 146–47, 151, 174–75
Yamagata, 22
army ministry (1873–1885), 26, 37, 47, 49, 61, 62
army penal code, April 1873, 33
Army Technical Headquarters Weapons Research Policy Board, 148
artillery, 28, 94–95, 104, 108, 148
assigned secondary role, 132–33
and Boshin Civil War, 14, 15
industrial limitations, 73, 94–95, 188
Italian influence, 28, 58
light weapons favored, 45, 74, 94
mobile warfare role, 186
modernization of, 187–88
Ōmura Masajirō and, 6, 14–15
reductions of, 133, 148
Satsuma Rebellion, 45, 74
shell shortages, 117, 132
Asada Nobuaki, 285n89
atomic bombs, 251
propaganda value for Japan, 260
atrocities, 259–60
at Hong Kong, 224
at Nanjing, 197
in Netherlands East Indies, 209–10, 252
on Okinawa, 247, 301n59
in Philippines, 224
at Port Arthur, 86–87
rape, 206
at Singapore, 223
on Thailand-Burma railroad, 236
three all policy, 214
Attu Island, battle of, 231, 240–41, 258. See also YamasakiYasuyo
Axis Alliance (1940), 213
Baden-Baden meeting, 155, 157
Baltic Fleet, 109, 114, 117
bakufu (shogunate), 4, 6, 15
and Boshin Civil War, 11–12, 18
defeat in Second Chōshū Expedition, 5–6
imperial restoration, 2, 7
reaction to western intrusion, 1–2, 3
Toba-Fushimi battle, 7–9
Bataan Death March, 224
Biak, battle of, 239, 242
Big Six, 249
Big Three, 149
Bismarck Sea, battle of, 230
bleeding strategy, 246
Blood Brotherhood Association, 174, 292n40
Board of Field Marshals and Fleet Admirals, 126, 139, 140, 145
Boer War, 98, 99
Bolsheviks, 142, 144
Bose, Subhas Chandra, 236
Boshin Civil War, 10–11, 39, 44, 50, 81, 257–58, 259
importance of, 19–20
logistics, 11
northern campaigns, 15–17
role of emperor, 7
Toba-Fushimi battle, 7–9
treatment of captives, 17–18
Ueno battle, 14–15
Boxer Expedition, 95, 97–98, 259
Boxer Protocol, 99, 101
Boxer Rebellion, 97–99
British Fourteenth Army, 237
budgets. See military budgets
Burma, 225, 235, 244
Burma Road, 210, 212, 225–26
reopened by allies, 238, 245
bushido, 48, 51, 119, 147
Cabinet Planning Board, 192, 229, 231
Caporetto, battle of, 141
Central Powers, 137
Changde operation, 243–44
Changkuofeng, battle of, 201–2
Changsha operation, 215, 218–19, 221, 229
Cherry Society (Sakurakai), 167, 169, 171
Chiang Kai-shek, 169, 203, 209, 221
breaches Yellow River dikes, 201
Burma campaign, 225, 237, 244
China Incident, 191, 196
Nanjing, 196–97
Northern Expedition, 163–64
second Shanghai incident, 195–96
winter offensive, 207
Chichibu incident, 52
China
China strategy 1937, 190–91
identified as vital Japanese interest, 138–39, 163, 185, 256
imperial defense policy (1918), 138
initial Japanese war plans against, 53
operational plans 1894, 77–80
See also China Incident; Sino-Japanese War
China Expeditionary Army, 198, 203, 210, 228, 229
established, 207
Ichi-go operation, 244–45
policies, 207, 209
self-sufficiency of, 209, 250
treatment of former Japanese captives, 205
China Garrison Army, 99, 124, 188, 191
China Incident, 191–92, 194, 195, 198, 200, 215, 227–28, 244
aerial operations, 214–15
Changde, 243–44
Changsha, 215, 218–19, 221, 229
Chongqing, 227–28, 229
civilians prohibited from imperial general headquarters, 192
disease, 203, 227
Hundred Regiments Offensive, 213–14
Ichigō, 244–45
losses, 173, 245
military strategy, 190–92, 195, 196, 202, 207–8
Nanchang, 203
Nanjing, 196–97
Second Shanghai incident, 195–96
three all policy, 214
winter offensive, 207
Yichang, 209–10, 215, 227
Chō Isamu, 247
Chongqing operation, 229
Chōshū, 2, 3, 4–5
and imperial bodyguard, 10
first Chōshū expedition, 4
Forbidden Gate incident, 3–4, 5
kiheitai, 3, 4
leads imperial restoration, 2, 7
military modernization, 2–5
second Chōshū expedition, 5–6
Toba-Fushimi battles, 7–9
See also Ōmura Masajirō; Takasugi Shinsaku
Chōshū faction, 22, 111
anti-Chōshū reaction, 207, 209
entrenched by Terauchi Masatake, 130, 155
excluded from staff college, 155–56
monopolizes army’s senior positions, 19, 50, 65, 69, 111, 125, 130, 154–55, 253
Yamagata Aritomo, 22
civil-military relations, 64, 138, 140
army contempt for politicians, 166, 167, 171
attempts at civilian control, 128, 129–31
China Incident, 194
civilians excluded from military strategic planning, 78, 80, 127, 150, 183
civilians prohibited fr
om imperial general headquarters, 88–89, 192, 102–3
See also under China Incident; Russo-Japanese War; Sino-Japanese War
Clausewitz, Karl von, 101
coastal defense, 47, 53, 55, 56–57, 108
“Code of Battlefield Conduct” (Senjinkun), 212
command and control
Boshin War, 15–17
China Incident, 192–93, 195
divided nature of, 103–4
failure to institutionalize, 127, 183–84
Indochina, 212
Manchurian Incident, 168–69
Satsuma Rebellion, 42–43
Sino-Japanese War, 89, 107–8
conscription, 20, 22–25, 34, 69, 76, 93, 135
anti-conscription riots, 30–31
draft resistance, 30, 75, 160–61
exemptions, 29
good soldiers-good citizens, 29
induction categories, 67–68
leveling device, 29, 30, 34
popular resentment in early Meiji era, 30, 34
reforms (see conscription reforms)
conscription reforms
1873, 28–29
1879, 51
1883, 55
1887, 66–67
1889, 66, 67–68
1925, 154
1943, 232–33
conscripts, 10, 24–25, 161
changing nature of, 135
compared unfavorably to samurai, 19
conscription rates, 135, 198
daily routine during Meiji era, 31
desertions, 33
diet, 74
discipline, 133–35
educational levels, 73, 135, 160
indoctrination, 161
likelihood of being conscripted, 29–30
literacy rates, 73, 160
motivations to fight, 258
physical abuse of, 33, 68, 134
reliability questioned, 22, 28, 35, 41, 45–46, 133–34
social composition of, 29, 66, 160, 278n64
training (1880s), 68, 72–73, 76
control faction (tōsei-ha), 177–78, 179. See also Nagata Tetsuzan
Coral Sea, battle of, 228, 251
Council of State (dajokan), 49, 51, 52, 64
establishes school of military service, 20
general staff, 49
Korea controversy, 35
military budget reductions, 47
Saga uprising, 37
Taiwan Expedition, 36
counter-amphibious strategy, 57, 75, 241–42, 300n46
courts-martial, 68, 87, 259
Crisis of 1881, 51
Czech Legion, 142, 144
Dan Takuma, 174
decisive battle philosophy, 132, 162, 252
against United States, 239–40
concept of, 100
expressed in imperial defense policy of 1918, 140
expressed in imperial defense policy of 1923, 150–51
importance of opening battle, 146
and 1928 Principles of Command, 157
traditionalist argument, 147, 151
See also short-war strategy
demobilization, 261–62
destruction of records, 260
discipline, 68, 161, 179
in Boxer Rebellion, 98–99
Code of Battlefield Conduct, 212
enforced by corporal punishment, 68, 134, 206
importance of to army, 48
lax among reservists, 199
rape, 206
Russo-Japanese War, 107, 114
Sino-Japanese War, 76, 87
strict nature of, 134–35, 161, 259
See also obedience to orders
disease, 74, 91, 281n72
in China, 85, 203, 227
in Russo-Japanese War, 108, 116, 119
Taiwan Expedition, 38
division force structure, 48, 55, 62
conversion to, 56–57
debate over type of, 146–47
divisions, Japanese
1st, 179
2d, 83, 91, 300n50
5th
China Incident, 196, 198, 200
Indochina, 212
Malaya, 223, 294n79, 295n28
Sino-Japanese War, 79, 80, 81
7th, 143, 279n23
9th, 172
10th, 295n28
11th, 294n79
12th, Siberia, 143, 144, 294n79
15th, 237
16th, Nanjing, 197
18th, 230, 235
23d, Nomonhan, 204–205
33d, 237
51st, 230
56th, 244
Guards, 91, 253
Doolittle, James, air raid on Tokyo, 227
Eastern Expeditionary Force, 11
élan. See fighting spirit
Entente Powers, 137, 141, 142
“Essentials of Island Defense,” 242
Etō Shimpei, 14, 36–38
factionalism, 253
in 1930s, 170–71, 177–80
Far Eastern Conference, 163
February 26, 1936, incident, 179–80, 181, 183
field brothels, 206
fighting spirit, 162, 256, 277n40, 285n82
advocated by traditionalists, 126, 146, 147, 157
compensates for material deficiencies, 146, 147, 151
conscripts lack of in Satsuma Rebellion, 45–46
considered decisive in battle, 46, 110, 146, 147, 156–57
declines in Russo-Japanese War, 105, 107, 115
emphasized in 1928 Principles of Command, 133
fighting to the death, 159, 242
Meckel and, 59
Nomonhan, 205
paramount factor after Russo-Japanese War, 121, 132–34
popularized, 121
relation to suicide, 173
in Sino-Japanese War, 76, 83, 86
firepower, 32, 45–46
debate over, 132–33
first battle, 146
first Chōshū expedition, 4
First Shandong Expedition, 163
First Shanghai Incident (1932), 171–74. See also Kuga Noboru; Tanaka Ryūkichi; three brave soldiers who became human bombs (bakudan sanyushi)
five ministers conference, 177, 184
Forbidden Gate incident, 3–4, 5
force structure, 126–27, 140, 147, 151, 298n3
France
court-martial regulations, 68
establishment of Japan military academy, 27
Indochina crises, 210–12, 217–18
influences Japan’s conscription system, 29
limitations of training, 27, 43, 58
requests Japanese troops during World War I, 141
size of French training delegation, 58, 276–77n39
tactics, 33, 57–58
trains Meiji army, 25–27
trains shogun’s army, 1, 6
Franco-Prussian War, 58
French Indochina, 217, 245
crisis 1940, 211–12
occupation of southern Indochina 1941, 217–18
F-S Operation, 227, 228
Fujii Shigeta, 112
Fukuda Masatarō, 149, 151, 153, 288n21
Fukudome Shigeru, 182, 183
FukushimaYasumasa, 282n1
and Boxer Rebellion, 98, 99
Russo-Japanese War, 112
Fundamental Principles of National Defense and National Policy (1936), 184–85
Fundamentals of National Policy (1936), 184–85
Fushimi, Prince, 181, 183, 213
Futaba Club, 155–56
garrison system, 24–25, 49, 56, 61
general staff, army, 37, 48–49, 57, 63–65, 69, 94, 109, 185
absence of civilian control, 68
army expansion, 93
Boxer Rebellion, 98
China Incident policy, 190–92, 195, 196, 202, 207–08
China operational plan (1880), 53
establishment of imperial general headquarters (1937), 192
First Shanghai Incident, 171–73
imperial defense policy (1918), 150
Manchurian Incident, 168–69
organization, 49
Pacific operations, 231–32, 238–39
plans against Russia, 100–2
Port Arthur strategy, 105
rationale for, 49
reaction to Nazi-Soviet War, 216–18
reforms, 64
responsibilities, 49
right of direct access to emperor, 49, 65
Second Shanghai Incident, 192
Siberian Expedition, 142–44
Sino-Japanese War, 77, 81, 83–84
shipping shortages, 84, 229–30
slights logistics, 60, 116
southern strategy, 210
split with war ministry over strategy, 211
World War I, 141–42
general staff bureau, 49. See also sixth bureau
general staff college, 48, 50, 59, 122, 155
association with emperor, 50
attendance important to career, 60, 155
curriculum, 50, 59
emphasis on tactics, 110
entrance requirements, 60, 155–56
intangibles of battle in curriculum, 158
Meckel and, 59
Geneva Convention of 1929, 158
Germany, 128, 205, 209, 216
effect of 1940 victories on Japan, 209
influences on Japanese army, 49, 58–59, 62
Japanese expectations in World War II, 221–22, 226
Qingdao campaign, 137
See also Meckel, K. W. Jakob
Getsuyōkai, 66, 71
Getsuyokai kiji, 66
Goltze, Colmar von de, 58
good soldiers—good citizens, 29
Great Britain, 2, 98, 99
Anglo-Japanese Alliance, 99–100
Boxer Rebellion, 98
Burma Road, 210, 212
Japanese strategy and, 209, 221
requests Japanese troops during World War I, 137
Greater East Asia Co-Prosperity Sphere, 211
Greater East Asia War, 223
Greater JapanYouth Association, 136
Great Tokyo Earthquake (1923), 149, 155
Guadalcanal, battle of, 228–29, 235, 258
Hague Convention on the Laws and Customs of War, 120
Hakodate, battle of, 18
Hamada Kunimatsu, 187
Hara Kei, 128, 144
assassinated, 145
and military budgets, 129, 141
opposes Siberian intervention, 142–43
Hashimoto Kingorō
and Cherry Society, 167
March 1931 incident, 167–68
October 1931 incident, 169–70
Hata Shunroku, 218
Hayashi Senjurō, 154, 168, 178–79, 257
Higashikuni, Prince, 219
Hill 203, battle of, 108, 118
Hirohito, Emperor of Japan (1926–1989), 199, 211, 218, 220, 229, 290n8
Big Six, 250
Changkuofeng, 202
China Incident, 191–92, 199
February 26, 1936, incident, 179
First Shanghai Incident, 173
Guadalcanal, 229–30
imperial defense policy, 183
influences war termination, 250–51
Kwantung Army Special Maneuvers, 217–18
Japan's Imperial Army Page 48