Ninomiya Harushige, 290–91n20
Nishida Mitsugi, 180
Nishio Toshizō, 210
Nishi-Rosen Agreement, 92
Nogi Maresuke, 111, 121–22, 274n21, 283n40
captures Port Arthur (Sino-Japanese War), 83
incompetence, 108, 110–11, 118
Mukden campaign, 118, 121
opposes Getsuyōkai, 66
Port Arthur campaign (Russo-Japanese War), 105, 107–8, 114–15
Tabaruzaka battle, 43
western image of, 108
Nomonhan, battle of, 203–5
significance for army, 204, 205, 217
non-commissioned officer (NCO), 69
education and training, 25, 27
NCO academy, 25, 27
NCO preparatory school, 160
recruitment and retention, 27
responsibilities, 33, 134
sources of, 27, 33
Northern Expedition, 163–64
November incident, 178
Nozu Michitsura, 111
Nozu Shizuo, 37, 41, 50
Ōba Jirō, 111, 114
Obata Toshirō, 157 177, 292n49
anti-Chōshū faction, 155–56
Baden-Baden conference, 155
contempt for USSR, 159
proposes preemptive war with USSR, 176–77
revises Principles of Command, 157
obedience to orders, 48, 52, 68, 134
mitigating factor in crimes, 161, 179
See also discipline
occupation policies, 206, 221, 241
Ochiai Toyosaburō, 112
October incident, 170, 178, 181
officers, 2, 11
attitudes about conscripts, 134
changing characteristics of, 159
education and training of, 20, 25–26, 50, 59–60
lack professionalism, 110–11
military academy, 26–28
professional development, 62–63, 66, 115
reserve officers, 66–69, 159–60, 233
shortages in Russo-Japanese War, 284n54
shortages in World War II, 233, 299n26
sources of, 67, 93–94, 159–60
special officer cadet system, 233
Ogawa Mataji, 77–78
Oikawa Koshirō, 213
oil embargo, 218
Ōi Shigemoto, 112
OkamuraYasuji, 155, 207
Ōkawa Shumei, 167–68, 170
Okinawa, battle of, 243, 246–48, 249, 252, 260
army’s treatment of civilians, 246–47
dispute over tactics, 246–47
Hirohito’s concerns, 242, 248
relation to decisive battle of the homeland, 248
suicide tactics, 248
See also Tengō Operation
Ōkubo Toshimichi, 14, 20, 21, 23
assassinated, 47
commands government army, 37
favors samurai army, 20, 23
Taiwan Expedition, 38
Ōkuma Shigenobu, 128–29, 137
OkuYasukata, 104, 111, 112
Ōmura Masujirō, 20, 38, 50
assassinated, 21
commemoration at Yasukuni Shrine, 21
conscription advocate, 20, 21, 23
designs new army, 20
military education, 20–21
northern campaigns, 15, 17
Saigō Takamori, 14–15
Second Choshu Expedition, 5
Shōkonsha, 18
succeeds Takasugi Shinsaku, 5–6
tactical thought, 5–6
trains kiheitai, 4–5
Ueno battle, 14–15
One Evening Society, 155, 171, 177
Osaka arsenal, 28, 73
Ōshima Hiroshi, 216, 297n70
Ōshima Ken’ichi, 113, 140
Ōsugi Sakae, 161
ŌteraYasuzumi, 90
Outline of Imperial Foreign Policy (1936), 185
Outline of National Policy (1936), 183
Ōyama Iwao, 65, 66, 72, 83, 105, 108, 113
adoption of Prussian-style system, 58
agrees to naval general staff, 100–101
army expansion, 55–56
commands Manchurian Army, 104, 113
favors diplomatic settlement to Russo-Japanese War, 109
general staff, 50
importance of independent arms industry, 28
inspector general issue, 62–63
opposes Getsuyōkai, 71
Port Arthur massacre, 86–87
Russo-Japanese War, 117–18
Satsuma Rebellion, 44
Sino-Japanese War, 80, 90
warns Meiji about Russia, 101
Paris Peace Conference, 138
Pearl Harbor attack, 221, 222
peasant uprisings, 30–31, 39, 51–52
Peleliu, battle of, 242, 258
penal code, 33, 206
people’s rights movement, 48, 50–51, 275n4
Perry, Matthew, 1
poison gas, 203
political parties, 125, 129, 141
army budgets, 95, 129, 186
army suspicion of, 129
friction with army, 125, 128
Port Arthur, 92, 103, 112, 222, 259, 260
Japanese government reaction to massacre, 86–87
Russo-Japanese War, 100, 102, 105, 113–15
Sino-Japanese War, 83, 89
Port Arthur massacre, 86–87
Portsmouth, Treaty of, 129
Japanese public’s reaction to, 109–10
post–World War II Asia, 252, 261–62
Potemkin,109
pre-emptive war strategy, 175
Principles of Command, 156–57
Principles of National Policy (1936), 184
Prisoner of War Information Bureau, 120
prisoners of war, captured by Japanese
of German prisoners, 137, 259
at Nanjing, 197
during Russo-Japanese War, 120, 259
during Satsuma Rebellion, 45
during Sino-Japanese War, 86–87
treatment during Boshin Civil War, 17–18
during World War II, 223–24, 226, 260
See also atrocities
prisoners of war, Japanese
changing attitudes towards, 120
“Code of Battlefield Conduct” (Senjinkun), 212
effect of Second Shanghai Incident, 173
ostracized by community, 120
punished after Nomonhan, 205
Russo-Japanese War, 118–20
Sino-Japanese War, 86
status after World War II surrender, 261
protracted warfare theory, 139
Provisional Committee to Study Military Systems, 62
Provisional Foreign Affairs Research Committee, 138, 143
Provisional Military Research Committee, 138
public opinion and the army, 68, 115, 149
ABCD ring, 219
against Siberian Expedition, 143
army ceremonies, 68, 73
army manipulation of, 73, 78, 115
Attu reaction, 231
China Incident, 189, 199, 200
efforts to indoctrinate public, 73
emperor’s role, 23, 32–33, 59, 122, 198, 200
home front shortages, 215
Imperial Reservist Association role, 136
locus of modernization, 26, 28, 135
Manchurian Incident, 169, 176
Meiji Emperor’s role, 31, 32–33, 80
militarization of, 259
newspapers role, 87–88, 115, 121–22
opposition to defense budgets post–WWI, 141
reaction to Nogi, 115
reaction to Portsmouth Treaty, 122
resentment in early Meiji era, 30, 34
Russo-Japanese War, 104, 107, 110
Saipan reaction, 240
Siberian Expedition, 143, 145
shock at Russo-Japanese War losses, 103, 107, 110, 122
shock at
Shanghai losses, 1937, 196
sponsors rallies and parades, 115, 199–200
Tripartite Intervention, 90–91
war weariness, 115, 249–50
Yasukuni Shrine, 122–23
Young Men’s Military Training Corps, 154
Qingdao campaign, 137
railroads, 71–72, 278n9
army logistics doctrine, 195
in Russo-Japanese War, 116
reform faction, 125–26, 146–47, 162
division structure debate, 174–75
Ugaki reforms, 151, 153
Yamanashi reforms, 149
regional superintendents, 49–50, 63
replacement crisis, Russo-Japanese War, 107, 109, 115, 284n54
reserves, 56, 67, 279n22, 299n26
China Incident, 198–99
criticism of, 199, 233
length of service, 29, 51, 55, 67–68
officers, 66–67, 159–60, 233
reorganized (1893), 75
Russo-Japanese War, 107, 115, 126
Sino-Japanese War, 81. See also mobilization
rice riots (1918), 143
rich country and strong army, 254
Roosevelt, Franklin, 215, 218
Roosevelt, Theodore, 109
Russia, 57, 139, 157
contemptuous of Japanese, 102
traditional enemy of army, 52, 57, 92, 96, 100–101, 128
Tripartite Intervention, 90–91
See also Russo-Japanese War; Union of Soviet Socialist Republics
Russo-Japanese War, 255, 258
civilians prohibited from imperial general headquarters, 102–3
defines postwar Japanese army, 122, 256
dysfunctional Japanese high command, 110–11
imperial general headquarters, 102–4, 109, 113–14
logistics, 115–17
losses, 119
Meiji Emperor’s role, 102, 122
Mukden, 109, 118
Nanshan, 103–4
Port Arthur, 105, 107–8, 113, 117
reawakens traditional Japanese values, 121
strategy, 102
tactics, 104
Tsushima Straits naval battle, 109
Saga uprising, 36–37. See also Etō Shimpei
Saigō Takamori, 14, 19, 23, 36, 47, 48, 51
assistsYamagata Aritomo, 16–17
Etō Shimpei, 37
Korea crisis, 22, 35
leads Satsuma Rebellion, 39–41, 44–45
Ōmura Masajirō, 14, 15
organizes Imperial Guard, 23
personality, 12
rehabilitated by government, 45
relations to imperial throne, 8
reorganizes government army, 20
suicide, 45
surrender of Edo, 12
Toba-Fushimi battle, 7–8
Ueno battle, 14
Saigō Tsugumichi, 38
Saionji Kinmochi, 125, 127, 129, 199
civilian control of army, 130
limits army divisions, 128
Taishō political crisis, 131
Zhang Zuolin affair, 165
Saipan, battle of, 239–40, 258
Saitō Makoto, 174, 292n50
Sakuma Samata, 111
Sakurai Tadayoshi, 121, 231
samurai (warrior class), 2, 39–41, 44–45
appeals to samurai spirit, viii, 35, 46
attitude toward surrender, 17
augment new government army, 30, 31, 37
difficulty adjusting to modern army, 2, 26
distrusted by Meiji leaders, 35, 40, 258
ethos, 19
fighting spirit idealized by army, 46, 48, 121, 258
reaction to Meiji Restoration, 20–21, 35
resentful of commoner soldiers, 19, 30, 44
stipends commuted, 35
sword privileges revoked, 26, 35, 38
uprisings, 35–36, 39
San-de-pu, battle of, 108
sanitary corps, 85
Satō Kenryō, 200, 230, 299n34
Satō Kōtoku, 237–38
Satsuma, 274n6
covert aid to Chōshū, 4–5
Forbidden Gate incident, 3–4
forms imperial bodyguard, 10
leader in Meiji Restoration, 7
military modernization, 3
monopolizes senior army posts, 19, 22, 50, 65, 69, 125, 155, 253
Toba-Fushimi battles, 7–9
western attacks on, 2
See also Saigō Takamori; Satsuma Rebellion
Satsuma Rebellion, 40–41, 45–50, 48–50, 53, 58, 74, 81, 111, 133, 257–58
Schellendorf, Paul von, 58
Schiefflen, Alfred von, 157
schools, service
Army Military Service School, 25
Army Sanitary School, 61
military academy, 25
NCO academy, 25, 27
NCO preparatory school, 160
Osaka School, 25
regional preparatory cadet schools, 94
school of military science, 20, 25
Toyama Infantry School, 25, 28, 51
Second Chōshū Expedition, 5–6
Second Shandong Expedition, 164–65
Second Shanghai Incident (1937), 195–96
Sedan, battle of, 105
seishin. See fighting spirit
Seiyūkai political party, 128, 129–30, 137, 167, 174
Shahe, battle of, 112
Shandong expeditions
First, 163
Second, 164
Shanghai Expeditionary Army, 195–96
Shanghai Expeditionary Headquarters, 173
Shigemitsu Mamoru
failure to confront war crimes, 260–61
Shimada Shigetarō, 233
Shimonoseki, Treaty of, 90, 93
ShirakawaYoshinori, 163, 165–66, 173
Shōgitai (League to Demonstrate Righteousness), 12, 14–15, 18
Shōkonsha, 50
Sho operation, 240–41, 243
short-war strategy, 132, 153, 156, 162, 175, 182, 217
army controversy over, 147–48
imperial defense policy (1918), 139–40
imperial defense policy (1923), 150–51
imperial defense policy (1936), 183
Pacific War, 221
Siberian Expedition, 138, 144, 150, 259
approved by Taishō emperor, 141
Japanese intervention, 141–45
Sino-Japanese War (1894–1895), 222
campaigns, 81–83
civilians prohibited from imperial general headquarters, 88–89
command and control issues, 88–90
general staff plans for, 79–80
imperial general headquarters, 79–81
lack of joint strategy, 80
logistics, 83–85
Meiji Emperor’s role, 80
Port Arthur massacre, 86–87
reasons for Japanese success, 83
sixth bureau, 37, 48
Slim, William, 238
Soga Sukenori, 45, 65, 66, 253, 276n15
critical of inspector-general reforms, 62–63
Hokkaidō Colonization Office affair, 51
opposes large army, 53, 55
rejects treaty revision, 55
Russian threat, 70–71
Somme, battle of, 157
southern advance strategy, 210–11, 216, 218
Southern Army, 236
Soviet Red Army, 144, 159, 169, 182, 184, 202
squad regulations, 134–35, 161
stages of Pacific War, 251–52
Stalin, Joseph, 200, 202, 215
standardization, 25, 33–34, 57, 63, 74, 83
under Meckel, 59
stereotypes by Japanese
of Americans, 221, 226
of Chinese, 87, 119, 259
of Russians, 159, 201–2, 159
of west, 226
Stilwell, Joseph, 236, 237
Stimson, Henry, 171
st
rategy, 53, 55, 62, 70, 162
absence of civilian input, 127, 183–84
ad hoc for China (1937), 189, 195
after loss of Guadalcanal, 231–32
Asia-Pacific War, 219, 222, 225–26, 232
cabinet disagreements, 125, 128, 255, 257
imperial defense policy, 126–27, 137–40, 150–51, 181–85
inter-service differences over, 96, 127–28, 150
line of interests, 74
negotiated war termination, 222
post-1905, 92–93
reliance of Nazi Germany, 221–22, 226
Russo-Japanese War, 100, 102, 105
Sino-Japanese War, 77–80
United States, 218–19
Sugi Shigeru, 253
Sugiyama Hajime, 154, 200, 221, 234, 291n20
advises Hirohito on China, 191
Kwantung Army Special Maneuvers, 218–19
opinion on Indochina, 218
Sho operation, 240
suicide, viii, 257, 285n78
after World War II surrender, 261
battlefield suicides, Boshin Civil War, 17, 19
changing army attitudes about, 257–58
“Code of Battlefield Conduct” effect, 212
collective nature on Saipan, 240
Kuga Noboru, 173
Nomonhan examples, 205
Okinawa pattern, 245–47, 249
role in samurai culture, 17
sensationalized by army, 240
shifting popular notions about, 134–35, 172–73, 240
Ueno, 253
White Tiger Brigade, 17
suicide tactics, 240, 245, 247, 249
Suiyuan incident, 191
superintendency, 49, 61–63
Supreme Commander Allied Powers (SCAP), 261–62
Supreme Council for the Direction of the War, 240–41
surrender, 283n31
acceptable after Satsuma Rebellion, 45
army’s changing attitude about, 258
associated with cowardice, 17
Attu example, 231
in Boshin Civil War, 17–18
“Code of Battlefield Conduct,” 212
discouraged in Sino-Japanese War, 86
implied to be impermissible, 158
Japanese refusal to, 120
Kuga Noboro effect, 206
Nomonhan influence, 205–6
respectable after 1945, 205–6
Saipan example, 240
shameful in Russo-Japanese War, 107, 119–20, 285n78
Suzuki Sōroku, 175
SuzukiYorimichi,157
swords, 74, 176
wearing of forbidden, 24, 26, 35, 38
Tabaruzaka, battle of, 43–44
Tachibana Shūta, 121
tactics, 33, 162, 186, 197, 225, 229
Boshin Civil War, 11, 14–16
Boxer Rebellion, 99
counter-amphibious, 240–42
kiheitai, 5–8
night combat, 157–58
post-1905 revisions, 132–33
reliance on mobility and flanking maneuvers, 157–58
resistance to change, 242–43
Russo-Japanese War, 104
Saga uprising, 37
Satsuma Rebellion, 91
Sino-Japanese War, 85–86
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