Garibaldi

by Lucy Riall

  80. Della Peruta, ‘Il giornalismo’, p. 421.

  81. F. Fonzi, ‘I giornali romani del 1849’, Archivio della Società Romana di Storia Patria, 72, 1949, pp. 197–220.

  82. Sarti, Mazzini, pp. 137–40.

  83. H. Hearder, ‘The making of the Roman Republic, 1848–49’, History, 60, 1975, p. 171.

  84. L. Naste, Le feste civili a Roma nell'Ottocento, Rome, 1994; C. Tacke, ‘Feste der Revolution in Deutschland und Italien’, in D. Dowe, H.-G. Haupt and D. Langewiesche (eds), Europa 1848. Revolution und Reform, Bonn, 1998, pp. 1045–88.

  85. A. M. Ghisalberti, ‘Il marzo romano di Mazzini’, in idem, Momenti e figure del Risorgimento romano, Milan, 1965, pp. 149–50. On the broader international and historical significance of Rome, see C. Edwards (ed.), Roman presences: receptions of Rome in European culture, 1789–1945, Cambridge, 1999; N. Vance, The Victorians and ancient Rome, Oxford, 1997; W. L. Vance, America's Rome, 2 vols, New Haven, CT, and London, 1989.

  86. Ghisalberti, ‘Il marzo romano’, pp. 146–7, 156–8, 174–9.

  87. Mack Smith, Mazzini, pp. 67–9; the description of the festival (‘Very queer you will say; but it was really fine’) is in a letter of 23 April 1849, in A. H. Clough, The poems and prose remains of Arthur Clough with a selection from his letters and a memoir, 2 vols, London, 1869, 1, pp. 143–4.

  88. Some historians argue that the years 1848–9 are the real watershed in Church–state relations in Italy, rather than the later date of 1870 (when Rome became the capital of united Italy): G. Battelli, ‘Santa Sede e vescovi nell stato unitario. Dal secondo ottocento ai primi anni della Repubblica’, Storia d'Italia. Annali. La chiesa e il potere politico, Turin, 1986, pp. 809–10.

  89. Rizzi, La coccarda; see also D. Demarco, Una rivoluzione sociale. La repubblica romana del 1849, Naples, 1944; N. Roncalli, Cronaca di Roma, 1848–1870, 2 vols, Rome, 1997, 2, esp. pp. 9–22.

  90. Mack Smith, Mazzini, pp. 69–70. The origin of the phrase is not entirely clear, and great capital was made of it by the nationalists after they had beaten the French. See G. Belardelli, ‘Gli Italiani non si battono’, in idem et al., Miti e storia dell'Italia unita, Bologna, 1999, pp. 63–9.

  91. Clough, The poems, 1, pp. 143–4.

  92. Vance, America's Rome, 2, p. 132; H. James, William Wetmore Story and his friends, Boston, MA, 1903, p. 157.

  93. In Scritti, 40, p. 75.

  94. Ibid., p. 73.

  95. Sarti, Mazzini, pp. 144–5.

  96. G. M. Trevelyan, Garibaldi's defence of the Roman Republic, London, 1907, p. 2.

  97. On the European-wide wave of repression against the radical governments of 1849, see Sperber, The European revolutions, pp. 225–36.

  98. 9 May 1849, published in M. Castelli, Il Conte di Cavour. Ricordi, Turin and Naples, 1886, p. 132.

  99. According to The Times, 18 June 1849.

  100. P. Vermeylen, Les Idées politiques et sociales de George Sand, Brussels, 1984, pp. 149–50.

  101. 27 May 1849, reprinted in A. B. Fuller (ed.), At home and abroad. Or things and thoughts in America and Europe, Boston, MA, 1874, p. 382.

  102. Vance, America's Rome, 2, pp. 128–9. See also T. Roberts, ‘The United States and the European revolutions of 1848’, in G. Thomson (ed.), The European revolutions of 1848 and the Americas, London, 2002, pp. 88–9.

  103. 24 May 1849.

  104. On this popular Parisian theatre, famous for its melodramas, see J. McCormick, Popular theatre in nineteenth-century France, London, 1993.

  105. 30 Sept. 1849, to Lorenzo Valerio, in Carteggio di Lorenzo Valerio (1825–1865), 4 (1849), ed. A. Viarengo, Turin, 1994, p. 348.

  106. C. Bouneau, ‘Opinion publique parisienne et question romaine, novembre 1848–novembre 1849’, Université de Paris, I, Centre de Recherches en Histoire du XIXe Siècle, Mémoire de Maîtrise, 1982, pp. 311–21.

  107. Roncalli, Cronaca, pp. 232–4.

  108. 25 Oct. 1848, Scritti, 37, p. 83; see also Mazzini's letters to Emilie Hawkes, 15 Nov. 1848, and to George Sand, 16 Nov. 1848, ibid., pp. 118–25; 127–30.

  109. On Sterbini's comment, see Roncalli, Cronaca, p. 84; in general, see Ridley, Garibaldi, pp. 256–62.

  110. 27 March 1849, in Epistolario, 2, p. 116.

  111. 19 April 1849, in D. Mack Smith (ed.), Garibaldi, Englewood Cliffs, NJ, 1969, p. 20; also in Epistolario, 2, p. 144.

  112. 22 April 1849 and 1 May 1849, ibid., pp. 147, 152.

  113. On the agitation in Paris, see J. Beecher, Victor Considerant and the rise and fall of French socialism, Berkeley, 2001, pp. 246–9.

  114. Trevelyan, Garibaldi's defence, p. 187.

  115. According to the eyewitness Gabussi, in Mack Smith (ed.), Garibaldi, p. 21.

  116. Various estimates are given in Trevelyan, Garibaldi's defence, pp. 342–3, and Trevelyan's book still remains one of the most complete accounts of the fighting for Rome. See also Ridley, Garibaldi, pp. 270–307, and there is a shorter account in D. Mack Smith, Garibaldi. A great life in brief, London, 1957, pp. 43–52.

  117. The Lady's Newspaper, 19 May 1849.

  118. 24 Feb. 1849, in Scritti e discorsi, 1, p. 111.

  119. 30 Oct. 1848, ibid., p. 98.

  120. 30 Oct., 3 Nov., 12 Nov., 20 Nov. 1848, ibid., pp. 97–103.

  121. 18 Oct., 30 Oct., 12 Nov. 1848, 24 Feb., 20 May 1849, ibid., pp. 97–8, 103, 111, 127.

  122. 3 June 1849, ibid., p. 136.

  123. 11 June 1849, ibid., p. 139. For an analysis of this and the previous speech, see M. Isnenghi, Le guerre degli italiani, Milan, 1989, pp. 55–6.

  124. There are two versions in Scritti e discorsi, 1, pp. 147–8; see also Trevelyan, Garibaldi's defence, pp. 231–2, who gives another version and refers to other variants and their sources.

  125. B. Mitre, Ricordi dell'assedio di Montevideo (1843–1851), Florence, 1882, p. 13; G. von Hoffstetter, Giornale delle cose di Roma nel 1851, Turin, 1851, p. 29.

  126. La Concordia, 24 July 1849; the ordine del giorno of 4 July is in Roncalli, Cronaca, p. 197.

  127. Ibid., pp. 190–1.

  128. See Isnenghi, Le guerre, pp. 12–16; Winston Churchill's words in his famous speech to the House of Commons on 13 May 1940: ‘I have nothing to offer but blood, toil, tears and sweat’ were seemingly borrowed from Garibaldi.

  129. For a discussion of personal appearance as political sign, relating to the French Revolution, see R. Wrigley, The politics of appearance. The symbolism and representation of dress in revolutionary France, Oxford, 2002; also Hunt, Politics, p. 53 and idem, The family romance, pp. 76–82.

  130. M. Bonsanti, ‘Una generazione democratica: amore familiare, amore romantico e amor di patria’, in A. M. Banti and P. Ginsborg (eds), Il Risorgimento, Turin, forthcoming.

  131. Quoted in Trevelyan, Garibaldi's defence, p. 119.

  132. J. P. Koelman, Memorie romane, 2 vols, Rome, 1963, p. 245.

  133. Von Hofstetter, Giornale, pp. 28–9.

  134. Koelman, Memorie, pp. 245–6.

  135. Von Hofstetter, Giornale, pp. 29; Koelman, Memorie, p. 331.

  136. Von Hofstetter, Giornale, pp. 327, 355.

  137. Ibid., pp. 32–3.

  138. E. Dandolo, I volontari ed i bersaglieri lombardi, Turin, 1849, pp. 176–7.

  139. Della Peruta, ‘Il giornalismo’, p. 426; Vance, America's Rome, p. 127.

  140. 16 May, 29 May 1849.

  141. 18 May, 21 May 1849.

  142. 31 July, 21 Aug. 1849.

  143. The Illustrated London News, 19 May 1849; The Lady's Newspaper and Pictorial Times, 19 May 1849; L'Illustration. Journal universel, 26 May 1849; Il Mondo Illustrato, 5 Feb. 1848.

  144. 21 July 1849.

  145. 23 June, 7 July, 14 July 1849.

  146. Fuller, At home; the comment about Mazzini is on 20 March, p. 367, and the letter describing the departure of Garibaldi and his men, on 6 July 1849, pp. 413–14.

  147. Garibaldi. Arte e Storia, 2 vols, Florence, 1982, 1, cat II, 7. 1–4.

  148. Quoted in
P. Gut, ‘Garibaldi et la France, 1848–1882. Naissance d'un mythe’, Rassegna Storica del Risorgimento, 74/3, 1987, pp. 299–300. The ‘petit caporal’ refers to Napoleon.

  149. 12 May, 16 May, 24 May, 29 May, 14 July 1849.

  150. Mack Smith, Mazzini, p. 69.

  151. F. della Peruta, ‘Le teorie militari della democrazia risorgimentale’, in F. Mazzonis (ed.), Garibaldi condottiero. Storia, teoria, prassi, Milan, 1984, p. 73.

  152. Ibid., pp. 72–9; Jean, ‘Garibaldi e il volontariato’, pp. 404–5; L. Riall, ‘Eroi maschili, virilità e forme della guerra’, in Banti and Ginsborg (eds), Il Risorgimento.

  153. Trevelyan, Garibaldi's defence, p. 3.

  154. Sperber, The European revolutions, p. 151.

  155. See the discussion in N. Moe, The view from Vesuvius. Italian culture and the Southern Question, Berkeley, CA, 2002, pp. 2–3, 16–19.

  156. For a discussion, see P. Ginsborg, Daniele Manin and the Venetian revolution of 1848–49, Cambridge, 1979.

  157. Ibid., p. 376.

  158. For an attempt to link some of Garibaldi's subsequent political actions to his personal loss, see D. Pick, Rome or Death. The obsessions of General Garibaldi, London, 2005.

  Chapter 4: Exile

  1. Quoted in J. Ridley, Garibaldi, London, 1974, p. 336, emphasis in the original.

  2. On the legend which grew up around Casa Guelfi, and especially the ‘relic’ made from the cigar smoked by Garibaldi, see G. Guelfi, Il sigaro di Garibaldi, Genoa, 1992.

  3. On Garibaldi's escape from the Austrians across the Apennines, the most detailed source is G. M. Trevelyan, Garibaldi's defence of the Roman Republic, London, 1907, pp. 288–321.

  4. All these reports are also summarised in The Times, 17,18, 22, 23, 29 Aug. and 17 Sept. 1849.

  5. 5 Sept. 1849, in C. di Biase, L'arresto di Garibaldi nel settembre 1849, Florence, 1941, pp. 76–7.

  6. Ibid., p. 76.

  7. 5 and 6 Sept. 1849, ibid., pp. 75, 82.

  8. 6 Sept. 1849, ibid., pp. 79–81.

  9. 7 Sept. 1849, from Captain Basso, ibid., p. 88.

  10. 7 Sept. 1849, from Major Ceva di Nuceto, ibid., p. 90.

  11. 11 and 17 Sept. 1849; also reported in The Times, 19 and 24 Sept. 1849.

  12. 7 Sept. 1859, in Epistolario, 2, p. 197.

  13. 5, 6 and 7 Sept. 1849, in Di Biase, L'arresto, pp. 75, 84, 91.

  14. 8 Sept. 1849, from La Marmora, ibid., pp. 94–6.

  15. 6 and 8 Sept. 1849, pp. 82, 87–8.

  16. 13 Sept. 1849, in Di Biase, L'arresto, p. 116.

  17. H. Nelson Gay, ‘Il secondo esilio di Garibaldi (1849–1854)’, in idem, Scritti sul Risorgimento, Rome, 1937, p. 196.

  18. 8 and 15 Sept. 1849, in Di Biase, L'arresto, pp. 96, 118.

  19. See the correspondence of 6, 7, 10 and 15 Sept. 1849, ibid., pp. 79, 100–3, 107, 117.

  20. 22 Sept. 1849, ibid., p. 85.

  21. As reported in The Times, 20 Sept. 1849.

  22. 7 and 10 Sept. 1849.

  23. Atti del parlamento subalpino. Camera dei deputati. Discussione, 10 Sept. 1849, p. 375.

  24. Ibid., p. 379.

  25. 11 Sept. 1849; this letter was also reported in The Times of 17 Sept. and, according to Di Biase, L'arresto, p. 121, a whole series of versions of this letter exist, suggesting that it was widely circulated.

  26. Atti del parlamento, pp. 375, 382–3.

  27. See Valerio's letter of 10 Sept. 1849, in Di Biase, L'arresto, pp. 105–6, and the coverage in The Times, 17 Sept. 1849.

  28. Ridley, Garibaldi, pp. 346–7.

  29. La Gazzetta di Milano, 15 Sept. 1849.

  30. 21 Sept. 1849, from the Piedmontese consul in Tunis, in Di Biase, L'arresto, p. 126.

  31. On Garibaldi's movements in 1849–50, see Ridley, Garibaldi, pp. 347–57 and Gay, ‘Il secondo esilio’, pp. 197–205. The main source for his time in Morocco is D. Guerrini, ‘Giuseppe Garibaldi da Genova a Tangeri (1849)’, Risorgimento Italiano, Rivista Storica, 1/4, 1908, pp. 588–607.

  32. 27 Dec. 1849.

  33. 14 Oct and 10 Nov. 1849, Epistolario, 2, pp. 205, 209; ibid., 3, pp. 11, 20. On Garibaldi's memoirs, see below, pp. 154–61.

  34. See his letter to his cousin, Augusto, 12 Jan. 1850; to the American consul in Tangier, 22 Feb. 1850; and others to Francesco Carpeneto, 7 May and 22–23 June 1850, ibid., pp. 3–4, 6–7, 15–16, 22–3; see also Gay, ‘Il secondo esilio’, p. 203.

  35. 8 Aug. 1850.

  36. 29 June 1850.

  37. 6 July 1850.

  38. Tribune, 26, 27 and 29 July 1850.

  39. H. R. Marraro, American opinion on the unification of Italy, 1846–1861, New York, 1932, pp. 165–6.

  40. Tribune and Herald, 29 July 1850.

  41. D. S. Spencer, Louis Kossuth and Young America. A study of sectionalism and foreign policy, 1848–1852, Columbia and London, 1977, pp. vii, 7.

  42. Ibid., pp. 7–9, 121–4; T. Roberts, ‘The United States and the European revolutions of 1848’, in G. Thompson (ed.), The European revolutions of 1848 and the Americas, London, 2002, p. 93; Gay, ‘Il secondo esilio’, p. 206.

  43. Marraro, American opinion, p. 207.

  44. Ibid., pp. 169–71; on Gavazzi, see L. Santini, Alessandro Gavazzi, Modena, 1955.

  45. Roberts, ‘The United States’, p. 77.

  46. Tribune, Herald, Evening Post, 8 Aug. 1850 (the letter is dated 7 Aug.); La Concordia, 2 Sept.; Il Repubblicano della Svizzera Italiana, 5 Sept. The Italian version of the letter is published in Epistolario, 3, pp. 27–8.

  47. ‘Next to the oven there is an almost Cuban heat’, to Eliodoro Specchi, 10 Feb. 1851, ibid., p. 36.

  48. Ridley, Garibaldi, pp. 360–5; Gay, ‘Il secondo esilio’, pp. 207–11.

  49. See his series of letters to Carpaneto, 12 and 23 Aug. and 7 Sept, and to Carpenetti, 11 Sept. 1850, in Epistolario, 3, pp. 28–9, 31–3; and the letter from Foresti in Gay, ‘Il secondo esilio’, pp. 207–9.

  50. Herald, 27 Aug. 1850.

  51. Tribune, 8 Aug. 1850; see also 17 Feb. 1851.

  52. Quoted in Gay, ‘Il secondo esilio’, p. 209.

  53. Garibaldi's other American publicist, Margaret Fuller, had died in a shipwreck off Long Island in early 1850, returning to the USA with her husband and child.

  54. Tuckerman also published his impressions of Garibaldi: see his anonymous article ‘Garibaldi’ in North American Review, 92, 1861, pp. 15–56.

  55. G. Spini, Risorgimento e Protestanti, Naples, 1956, pp. 323–5.

  56. W. L. Vance, America's Rome, 2. Catholic and contemporary Rome, New Haven, CT, 1989, pp. 135–8.

  57. T. Dwight, The Roman Republic of 1849; with accounts of the Inquisition and the siege of Rome, New York, 1851, pp. 93–4.

  58. Vance, America's Rome, 2, pp. 137–8.

  59. Dwight, The Roman Republic, pp. 94, 96, 197.

  60. In fact, remarkably little is known about this period of his life. One firsthand account exists: E. Reta, ‘Ricordi del viaggio di centro America’, which includes a pencil sketch of Garibaldi, in MRG.

  61. See Scritti, 47, 14 and 25 Nov. 1851, pp. 87–9, 116; see also D. Mack Smith, Mazzini, London, 1994, p. 80.

  62. Ridley, Garibaldi, pp. 365–73; Gay, ‘Il secondo esilio’, pp. 211–12.

  63. Tribune, 30 April 1850; Gay, ‘Il secondo esilio’, p. 212.

  64. Ridley, Garibaldi, pp. 373–4.

  65. 19 Sept. 1853, in Epistolario, 3, p. 51.

  66. 21 Sept.1853, ibid., p. 53.

  67. 19, 21, 22 Sept 1853, ibid., pp. 51, 53, 55–6.

  68. To Carpaneto, 12 Aug. 1850, ibid., p. 28.

  69. Evening Post, 28 June 1859; Marraro, American opinion, pp. 166–8.

  70. See his letter of 7 Aug. 1850, and his letter to L. J. Cist, 23 Aug. 1850, Epistolario, 3, p. 31.

  71. Tuckerman, ‘Garibaldi’, p. 34.

  72. Spencer, Louis Kossuth, pp. 145–70; Roberts, ‘The United States’, pp. 94–7.

  73. Marraro, American opinion, pp. 170–3.


  74. Tribune, 8 Aug. 1850 and 28 April 1851; Herald, 27 Aug. 1850; Evening Post, 28 June 1859; Dwight, The Roman Republic, p. 94.

  75. For a discussion, see M. S. Miller, ‘Rivoluzione e liberazione. Garibaldi e la mitologia americana’, in Giuseppe Garibaldi e il suo mito. Atti del LI congresso di storia del Risorgimento italiano, Rome, 1984, pp. 220, 229; more broadly, C. Smith-Rosenberg, ‘The republican gentleman: the race to rhetorical stability in the new United States’, in S. Dudink, K. Hagemann and J. Tosh, Masculinities in politics and war. Gendering modern history, Manchester, 2004, pp. 61–76; B. Schwartz, George Washington. The making of an American symbol, New York, 1981, esp. pp. 127–30, 149–92, and D. Wecter, The hero in America, New York, 1941, esp. pp. 11–15.

  76. A. Herzen, My past and thoughts, 6 vols, London, 1924–7, 3, p. 77.

  77. Northern Tribune, I, Jan.–July 1854, p. 151; W. Settimelli, Garibaldi. L'album fotografico, Florence, 1982, p. 35, fig. 3.

  78. On the diplomatic context, see P. Schroeder, Austria, Great Britain and the Crimean War. The destruction of the European concert, Ithaca, NY, 1972; W. Baumgart, The Crimean War, 1853–1856, London, 1999, pp. 34–42, 211–17.

  79. On the Italian states during the 1850s, see A. Scirocco, L'Italia del Risorgimento, Bologna, 1990, pp. 320–37; on Antonelli, see F. Coppa, Cardinal Giacomo Antonelli and papal politics in European affairs, New York, 1990.

  80. D. Mack Smith, ‘Cavour, Clarendon and the Congress of Paris, 1856’, in idem, Victor Emanuel, Cavour and the Risorgimento, London, 1971, esp. pp. 81–2.

  81. There is a vast literature on Cavour, Piedmont and ‘the decade of preparation’. The most exhaustive study is R. Romeo, Cavour e il suo tempo, 3 vols, Rome and Bari, 1969–84, and see the same author's Dal Piemonte sabaudo all'Italia liberale, Turin, 1963. A. Cardoza, ‘Cavour and Piedmont’, in J. A. Davis (ed.), Italy in the nineteenth century, Oxford, 2000, pp. 108–31, is an up-to-date summary in English.