The Heartbeat of Wounded Knee
Page 56
“We are not children”: Peter Nabokov, Native American Testimony (New York: Penguin Books, 1999), 137.
“those that were with her say she did not suffer”: Brenda J. Child, Boarding School Seasons: American Indian Families, 1900–1940 (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1998), 65–66.
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Index
The page numbers in this index refer to the printed version of this book. The link provided will take you to the beginning of that print page. You may need to scroll forward from that location to find the corresponding reference on your e-reader.
Page numbers in italics refer to illustrations.
Abenake, 39, 42
Abourezk, James, 321–23
Acoma, 53, 55, 57–58, 209–17
“Act to Confer Jurisdiction on the State of Iowa over Offenses Committed by or Against Indians on the Sac and Fox Indian Reservation” (1948), 255
“Act to Free Indians from Federal Supervision” (1953), 256
Adams, Hank, 292
Adams, John, 454
adaptability of Indians, 88, 96, 172, 412, 417, 450
African Americans, 246, 288–89, 290, 294–96, 307, 439–40
Agnew, Spiro, 300
agriculture
accounts of harvesting, 386–87
and allotments, 202
in American Northeast, 38, 39
in California, 64, 65
of eastern tribes, 32–33
in Great Basin region, 76
in Great Lakes region, 46, 80
and Hopewell culture, 44
in Northern Plains, 85, 86
in Oklahoma, 83
in Pacific Northwest, 70
of prehistoric populations, 30
and reservation life of Indians, 198
in Southwest, 52, 53
Ais, 31
Akerman, Amos T., 132–33
Akimel O’odham (People of the River), 52, 62
Alabama, 34
Alafay, 31
Alaska, 256
Alcatraz Island, occupation of, 297–300
Algonquian tribes, 39, 41, 48, 49–50, 86–87
allotments, 143–51
and agricultural efforts, 202
and Collier, 205
and Indian Reorganization Act (1934), 206
lessons learned from, 287
and Menominee, 171, 265
Meriam Report on, 202
and mixed/full-blood Indians, 379–80
National Indian Defense Association’s pushback against, 158–61
and Red Lake leadership, 161–66
Álvarez de Pineda, Alonso, 80
Amacano, 31
American Fur Company, 91
American Horse, 2, 6, 133, 136
American Indian (term), 1n
American Indian Defense Association, 205
American Indian Movement (AIM)
and Alcatraz occupation, 300
beneficial outcomes of, 328, 357
and BIA headquarters occupation, 302–5, 306, 329
and charter school in Saint Paul, 328–29
and death of Aquash, 327, 328, 353–55, 356
and death of Bad Heart Bull, 317–18
and death of Robinson, 327–28, 356
and death of Yellow Thunder, 315–16, 319
and education in prisons, 330
establishment of, 296–97
FBI infiltration of, 353
image forged by, 306–7
and Jumping Bull firefight, 349–53, 355, 356
leadership of, 328, 354, 355–56, 359. See also Banks, Dennis; Means, Russell
and Little Earth housing project, 329
and Means’s comment on Ojibwe (Chippewa), 317
message of, 328
objectives of, 297
patrols of, 297
political aspects of identity, 383
and reservations, 318
and suspected traitors, 353–55, 356
and Trail of Broken Treaties caravan, 301–2
violence associated with, 304, 316–17, 321–28, 349–55, 359
and Dick Wilson, 320
women members of, 306–7
and Wounded Knee siege, 321–28
American Indian Opportunities Industrialization Center, 330
American Indian Religious Freedom Act (1978), 333, 335–37
American Legion posts, 198
Ames, Joel, 433
Anadarko, 112
Anasazi/Násaazí culture, 53–54
Anishinaabe tribes, 48–49. See also Ojibwe (Anishinaabe)
Anoatubby, Bill, 102–3, 168
Anthony, Scott, 93–94
anthropology, 14
Apache, 55, 58, 60, 62, 81, 96
Apalachee, 31
Aquash, Anna Mae, 327, 328, 353–55, 356
Arapaho
and Battle of the Little Bighorn, 95
bison-centered culture of, 86
and Dakota Access Pipeline protest, 435
in High Plains, 84
massacred by Chivington’s militia, 93–94
resettled to Oklahoma, 83
and Treaty of Fort Laramie (1851), 90
Archambault, David, II, 433, 434, 436, 439
Arikara
culture of, 46
displacement of, 86, 87
and guns provided by French, 87
in High Plains, 84
and Lakota attacks, 89
military service of, 192
sedentary culture of, 89
and Treaty of Fort Laramie (1851), 90
Arizona, 201, 256, 268
assimilation
destructiveness of, 114
and Dixon’s “vanishing race” narrative, 195–96
federal policy of, 254–55
and Indian boarding schools, 135–36, 139, 142, 196–97
and Meriam Report, 202
and religious oppression, 205
and U.S. citizenship, 199
See also termination of wardship status
Assiniboine, 84, 87, 90, 91
Athabascan culture, 55, 61, 81
Azhede-giizhig (Pelican Sky), 166
Bad Heart Bull, Wesley, 317–18
Bagone-giizhig (Hole-in-the-Day), 186, 379, 413
Baird, Rick, 312–13
Baker-Fancher party, 77–79
Banks, Dennis
and Aquash, 327, 353–55
arrival at Pine Ridge Reservation, 321
and death of Bad Heart Bull, 318
leadership of AIM, 296–97, 328
and Matthews, 288
questioned about murders, 356
and Wounded Knee siege, 324, 326, 327
Baraga, Frederic, 170
Barrasso, John, 373
Barry, Marion, 303
Barthes, Roland, 180
Basques, 45
Battle of the Little Bighorn, 2–3, 5, 95, 159, 447
Baum, L. Frank, 8, 15
Bayliss, Robert, 314–15
Bear Clan (Ojibwe), 151
Beaulieu, Paul, 165
Beaulieu, Theodore D., 197
beaver pelt trade. See fur trade
Becker, Bernie, 368–69
Bell, Alonzo, 159
Bellecourt, Clyde, 296, 303, 321, 327
Bellecourt, Vernon, 296, 306, 321, 328
Bena, Minnesota, 183–84, 185
Benjamin, Walter, 452–53
Bering land bridge, 27
bingo operations, 370–71, 372
Bissonette, Jeannette, 349–50, 351, 352
Black Elk (Hehaka Sapa),
445–50, 452
Black Elk, Ben, 321
Black Hills, South Dakota, 2, 86, 94, 95, 159–60
Black Panthers, 294–96
Blackfeet
and Battle of the Little Bighorn, 95
and buffalo, 239
chiefs with Collier, 206
constitution of, 244
enemies of, 238
and guns provided by French, 87
and Hall’s narrative, 240–44
in High Plains, 84
homelands of, 86, 238
and horses, 87, 91, 238
Indian agent assigned to, 112
intertribal conflict/relations, 89, 91, 242
and Lewis and Clark’s Corps of Discovery, 238
marriage practices of, 241–42
massacres of, 94, 114, 239
military service of, 242
raiding practices, 242
resettlement of, 239
and smallpox epidemic, 91–92, 239, 241
starvation of, 112, 242–43
term, 237–38
territorial expansion of, 91
tribal government, 244
Blackfeet Nation, 208, 235, 237
Blackfoot Confederacy, 91
Blackhorse, Frank, 327
Bland, Thomas A., 159, 160
blood quantum, 146, 378–80
Blue Horse, 133
Board of Indian Commissioners, 109–10
boarding schools, 132–43
and assimilation, 134–36, 139, 142, 196–97
and coercion of families, 61, 138–39
deaths at, 140, 454
and family separations, 136, 137–38, 142, 412
and financial struggles of families, 150–51
Hall’s account of, 243
health conditions at, 136, 141–42
Indian leaders’ support of, 135–36
and intertribal relations, 242, 286–87
and languages of Indians, 134, 139, 140, 430
and Meriam Report, 140, 141–42, 202
and military service of Indians, 190–91
origins of, 132–33
orphans in, 151
policies and methods of, 134–35, 137, 139, 141–42
and religious administrators of Indian services, 110
Schildt’s account of, 273–74
and skills brought back to tribe, 174
Bobadilla, Francisco de, 24
Boldt Decision, 394
Bolon, Andrew, 74
Bomto, 31
Bonneville, Benjamin, 77
Boston, 410–11
Great Britain. See England
Brown, Dee, 10–11, 15, 451
Brown v. Board of Education, 289
Brownback, Sam, 431
Bruce, Louis, 301
Bryan, Helen, 366–70, 384
Bryan, Russell, 366–70
Bryan v. Itasca County, 368–69, 371, 388
Buchanan, James, 77
Buffalo, New York, 40
Buffalo Bill’s Wild West Show, 5, 448
buffalo herds
of Great Plains, 79–80
Indians’ adaptation to loss of, 96
last large hunt of, 448
of Northern Plains, 86, 88, 95
range of, 40
U.S.-led destruction of, 3, 3–4, 82, 95, 239, 448
Bull Head (Indian police officer), 5
Bureau of Indian Affairs (BIA), 106, 249
and Acoma, 210
AIM’s occupation of, 301, 302–5, 306, 329
and assimilation, 254
corruption/ineptitude in, 396–97
and House Concurrent Resolution 108, 257
Indians’ resentment of, 113
institutional changes at, 174
and Johnson’s war on poverty, 332
mission of, 113
paternalism of, 397
superintendents of, 113
and tribal structure, 113
Washburn’s service in, 103
and Wounded Knee siege, 321, 322, 325
See also Office of Indian Affairs
Bureau of Indian Commissioners, 131, 132
burial grounds and funerary objects, 337–38
Burke Act (1906), 149
Burnett, Peter, 67
Burnette, Robert, 301
Bury My Heart at Wounded Knee (Brown), 10–11, 15, 451
Bush, George H. W., 410
Bush, George W., 174
Butler, Darrell “Dino,” 351, 352
Butterworth, Robert, 370
Cabazon Band of Mission Indians, 371
Cabeza de Vaca, Álvar Núñez, 80
Cabot, John (Giovanni Caboto), 25, 27, 29
Cabrillo, Juan, 63, 64
Caddo, 80, 83
Cahokia village, 44, 45
California, 63–68
BIA offices abolished in, 257
casinos in, 371
disenrollment from tribes in, 379
effect of trade on, 64–65
gambling rulings in, 371
and Public Law 280, 256
Russian settlements in, 71
Spanish in, 64–65, 66, 71
unemployment rate in, 373
California Act (1949), 255
California v. Cabazon Band of Mission Indians, 371, 394
Calloway, Colin, 29
Calusa, 31
Camp, Carter, 321, 327
Canada, military service of Indians in, 187–88
Carlisle Indian Industrial School, Pennsylvania, 133–37, 139, 140
Carlucci, Frank, 306, 333
Carson, Kit, 62
Carter, Jimmy, 336
Cartier, Jacques, 45
casinos, 364–74
and Bryan’s taxation ruling, 366–70
common questions about, 364–66
and culture question, 382–84
and disenrollment from tribes, 378–81
and employment rate, 373–74
federal regulation of, 372–73
and incomes of Indians, 443
and poverty rates, 373, 384
revenues from tribal gaming, 371, 373
Catawba, 32
Catlin, George, 84
Cayuga, 39, 40
Cayuse War, 72–73
Century of Dishonor, A (Jackson), 129
ceremonial lives of Indians
dances, 153, 156, 166–67
and health/wellness, 429
in modern life, 420, 421
in Northern Plains, 88
policing of, 153, 154–55, 156, 157
Chaco Canyon, 54, 213
Champlain, Samuel de, 47
Charlevoix, Pierre-François-Xavier de, 264
Chatot, 31
Cherokee, 32, 33, 34–35, 83, 173–74, 198
Cheyenne
and Battle of the Little Bighorn, 3, 95
bison-centered culture of, 86
and buffalo, 86
and Dakota Access Pipeline protest, 435
and guns provided by French, 87
in High Plains, 84
massacres of, 93–94, 114
resettled to Oklahoma, 83
and Treaty of Fort Laramie (1851), 90
Chickasaw
and amalgamation of tribes, 32
and disease, 35
homesteads claimed by, 174
resettled to Oklahoma, 83, 102
resistance exercised by, 168–69
spirit of self-determination in, 102–3
children, 6–7, 103–4, 113, 151. See also boarding schools
&nb
sp; Chile, early settlement site in, 27
Chine, 31
Chippewa, 203, 257, 317. See also Ojibwe (Anishinaabe)
Chiricahua, 55
Chivington, John, 93–94
Choctaw
and amalgamation of tribes, 32
and disease, 35
homesteads claimed by, 174
military service of, 189, 191–92, 219
resettled to Oklahoma, 83
and Seminole, 35
Chukchansi, 378–79
cigarette stores, tax-free, 370
cities and urban centers
adaptation of Indians to, 278–79
and diversity in modern Indian life, 443
Indian enclaves in, 287
intertribal relationships in, 279
percentage of Indians living in, 288, 293
and relocation program, 268–69
and shifts in American demographic, 246–47
citizenship of Indians
and assimilation, 199
and “education” mandates, 133–34
and Fourteenth Amendment, 129, 199
granted in 1924, 200
and House Concurrent Resolution 108, 250–51
and Indian rights movement, 131
and Iroquois Confederacy, 218
and military service, 109, 189, 196, 197, 199
sought by Friends of the Indian, 132
and tribal membership, 200
and voting rights, 200
civil rights movement, 288–89, 290, 294–96, 439–40
Civil War, 106–7, 109, 189
Civilian Conservation Corps (CCC), 219, 221, 244, 263
Clark, William, 72, 89, 116–17
Clearwater, Frank, 326
Cleveland, Grover, 159
Cleveland, Sam (author’s cousin), 180–85, 227–31
cliff dwellings of the Southwest, 54, 213–14
Coahuiltecan, 80
coastal cultures in North America, 29–30, 45, 69
Cochiti, 54, 55
Code of Indian Offenses, 153–55, 156–58
Colby, Leonard, 7
Cole, Tom, 441
Coler, Jack, 351–52
Collier, John, 204–8, 206, 219
Colter, John, 91
Columbus, Bartholomew, 23, 24
Columbus, Christopher, 21, 22–26, 29, 409, 411–12, 454
Columbus, Diego (Giacomo), 23, 24
Colville Tribes, 370
Comanche, 60, 81–82
Community Action Program (CAP), 332–33
Confederacy of Six Nations, 218
Confederated Tribes of the Umatilla Indian Reservation, 74
Cooley, Dennis, 107
Cooper, Polly, 105
Coronado, Francisco de, 56–57
Corte-Real, Gaspar, 41
Cortés, Hernán, 25