Plant Identification
Page 5
The project was approved for funding by the UK government’s foreign aid agency, the Department for International Development (DFID). As the project evolved, a move towards a broader, and more Latin American, set of specialists was both practical and political.
Thirty-seven specialists visited the project, whereas only six were originally planned. A further 37 specialists provided identifications from material sent by mail. Involving researchers from within the country obviously reduces travel costs considerably, and it goes without saying that researchers in countries such as Brazil should be encouraged to study their own flora. Specialists were chosen based on their reputation in identifying their studied families in the Amazon region, giving preference, where possible, to botanists in Brazil, especially students. Botanical specialists visited for periods of between a few days and several months.
Several experienced mateiros (local tree-identification experts) were employed full time by the project; three eventually became co-authors of the field guide. A group of young Brazilian botanists and students also became co-authors of the guide. Their role was to integrate the knowledge of mateiros and specialists (or their own technical knowledge) and to design the eventual output in a user-friendly manner.
Project staff participated in all stages of the field guide production. The philosophy was to separate functions by the families selected, rather than the stage in production. As a result, all team members did their own fieldwork, database management, photography, image
Producing a successful guide 19
enhancement, and guide design
and production. The project
leaders decided to spread tasks
horizontally rather than vertically
in order to allow all members of
the team to participate in every
aspect. This is perhaps less
efficient than a vertical structure
(specializing in certain tasks),
and may lead to inconsistency.
The guide’s page layout
(see Figure 2.2) allows for quick
comparison of species and for
the presentation of several
species per page.
A typical page contains
Source: Ribeiro et al (1999)
around 20 images. The achieve-
Figure 2.2 Example of a botanical
ment of illustrating all vegetative
guide page layout
characters (leaves, bark, slash,
or inner bark, and venation)
photographically for such a large number of species is extraordinary and was only possible due to the development of digital photography, as well as the payment of all research and production costs by the UK DFID. At 799 pages and 4cm thick, this is a heavy book; but with its plastic cover, it is still feasible to take it into the field.
Not surprisingly, such a large number of species presents enormous complexity in helping the user to find the relevant species, or group of species. Various glossaries, ingenious keys and colour coding point the reader’s way around. Nevertheless, the biggest single criticism of the book is that it is hard to navigate around. The authors explain that this is inevitable, and have organized training courses to help users become familiar with the layout.
Source: Mike Hopkins interviewed by Anna Lawrence Árvores Brasileiras (Lorenzi, 2002)
Another lavishly illustrated guide is the larger format and less portable book by Harri Lorenzi, typical of a series of expensive guides to Brazilian trees, palms, weeds and ornamental plants. Árvores Brasileiras ( Brazilian Trees) is now in its fourth edition in Portuguese, and also features an English translation, both currently priced internationally at US$100 (in Brazil, the cost is approximately half).
The book features a clearly identified purpose: to sell the guide and create revenue to support further botanical research. While the author freely admits to a lack of consultation and testing in the production of the guide, he is not aiming at a tool that is usable in the field, but rather a book that provides accurate and reliable information. The guides are therefore very carefully designed and researched to the extent that every species page is identically formatted, and the author holds up publication until exactly the required illustrations are available. This degree of scientific accuracy has brought unexpected results for scientific research – users provide detailed feedback to Lorenzi and have filled in gaps in knowledge about the distribution and phenology of the trees illustrated. While the book is one of the most expensive available, it is suitable for its audience in Brazil and the US, and is widely distributed.
20 Plant Identification
In an interview, Lorenzi explained the impact of this luxury ‘model’. It can hardly be thought of as a field guide, and yet, because there is no other guide with this geographical range and quality of botanical research, many professional botanists use it. Lorenzi receives letters every week from people who want to correct or add to his information, and every new print run of the book includes amendments. As a result, new contributions have been added to the scientific knowledge of species distribution and phenology. Furthermore, the books have clearly stimulated public involvement in botanical data collection.
Another, less common, consequence of publishing this guide is the revenue generated, which has been sufficient to establish a private research institute, purchase an aeroplane for botanical exploration in the Amazon Basin, employ four scientists and conduct further botanical research. Principles of guide production illustrated by this example include the quality and reliability of botanical research; the benefit of a range of illustrations for different parts of a plant; consistency of format; and the value of providing mechanisms for feedback.
Source: Harri Lorenzi interviewed by Anna Lawrence Frutíferas da Mata na Vida Amazônica (Shanley et al, 1998) Receitas sem Palavras (Shanley et al, 1996)
These examples illustrate a very clear identification of purpose and an obvious sense of who the target users are. By carefully following through the later stages of the process, the authors have tested and ensured that their users, who do not read often, find the books easy to understand; they have also paid particular attention to dissemination and feedback so that the guides reach a wide audience, even on different continents.
Five rural communities in eastern Amazonia, Brazil, asked researchers to help them generate technical information on the ecology and comparative economics of the value of timber and non-timber forest products. They realized that although this technical input was critical, what was really needed was some way of presenting and collaboratively sharing information about the plants in order to catalyse new ways of thinking. The large size of the region meant that it was impossible to offer workshops to even a small percentage of the remote communities facing forest transformation. Therefore, in order to reach a wider area, the communities developed two illustrated booklets on the non-timber medicinal, fruit and game-attracting trees of local/regional value.
Ecological and economic data presented in workshops was transcribed onto paper in an illustrated form with a descriptive text. In order to make the book Frutíferas da Mata na Vida Amazônica ( Fruit Trees of the Forest in the Lives of Amazonians) culturally appealing to a wide variety of literate and non-literate readers, data about the ecology and economics of trees is featured alongside illustrated songs, stories and lore. Primary data on the economics, density and production of fruit trees is featured next to a section on women’s rights, tips for selling fruit, and recipes for shampoo and ice cream.
A second booklet, Receitas sem Palavras: Plantas Medicinais da Amazônia ( Recipes without Words: Medicinal Plants of Amazonia), features illustrations depicting medicinal plant remedies. By providing data on the density, fruit production and economic value of native forest fruit trees, the book offers tools for families to estimate the timber versus the non-timber value of the forest tract. It also gives tips and techniques on planting and managing fruit trees and on value-added processing of
medicinal oils and fruits.
Information is designed to be used as a springboard for discussion, experimentation and new thinking about forest management and the use of forest resources. The guiding philosophy is stated on the first page: ‘This is not a book to be read; it is a book to be used in practice.’
Producing a successful guide 21
These two examples are clearly not field guides in the conventional sense; they are books that help barely literate people plan their management of forest trees. In order to do so, they need to link the information to the plant in question, and both books unambiguously help them to do this.
Readers have commented on the rural authenticity of the language, which enhances the accessibility of the guides to populations who frequently feel shut out by the formality of most written material. By presenting information in a culturally captivating form to communities, the authors made the unexpected discovery that knowledge presented in this way was also more accessible to policy analysts, conservation organizations and urban citizens. Because the learning materials were specifically designed to reach semi-literate persons, they are also understandable by non-Portuguese speaking populations.
Requests for the books are being fielded from countries as diverse as Ecuador, Greece, Mexico, Sri Lanka and Malaysia. Discussions outside of Brazil reveal that the books can serve as templates for how to encourage new thinking, while giving back scientific data to local communities in an accessible form (Shanley and Gaia, 2002).
Source: abstracted from Shanley and Gaia (2002) Flores Nativas da Chapada Diamantina (Harley and Giulietti, 2004) The idea of producing field guides targeted at eco-tourists is becoming popular in some of Brazil’s most accessible protected areas. Rio de Contas, an upmarket mountain retreat in Bahia, northeast Brazil, has tourists with time and money, and an unrequited interest in the flora. Professor Ray Harley of the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew, has described his plans to address this demand in Flores Nativas da Chapada Diamantina ( Native Flowers of the Chapada Diamantina).
He points out that eco-tourists are interested not only in identifying species, but in understanding their context. Such tourists are intelligent and highly educated readers with a curiosity about the natural world. Before the availability of a more accessible guide, tourists had relied upon the Flora Pico das Almas (a large technical botanical work, with few illustrations), which is in English, apart from an introduction in Portuguese. This guide is not suitable for most Brazilian users because it is too technical and is written in an unfamiliar language. The writing of Flores Nativas da Chapada Diamantina was nevertheless made much easier because the botanical information for the area already existed in this earlier work.
A group of botanists therefore saw the opportunity to provide something more tailored to eco-tourists. Flores Nativas da Chapada Diamantina is illustrated with plenty of line drawings and photos. The authors recognize that identification is not the most important point of the book; instead, it is intended to help visitors be informed about the plants and attracted to spending more time there. As a result, it contains a substantial introduction with a background on tropical plants, climate, seasons, the natural history of Brazil and a
‘preview’ of what might be seen in the area, and it is based on a description of a series of trails and plants within their vicinity.
The text is written in Portuguese on one side, English on the other, with small plates scattered among the pages. Local popular names are included so that tourists can discuss the plants with local people. Usability is ensured by reducing the size of the guide and toning down the technical language, while more illustrations than usual are included.
Source: Ray Harley interviewed by Anna Lawrence
3
Planning and budgeting
Anna Lawrence, Ana Paula Lopes Ferreira, Maria Theresa Stradmann, Israel Vargas, Claudia Jordán, Marcelino Lima, Patricia Norrish, Sarah Gillett and Teonildes Nunes INTRODUCTION
Chapter 2 set out the characteristics of a successful guide and presented an overview of the steps involved in the production process. The aim of this chapter is to provide more detail about steps 1 to 3 of this process (see Figure 2.1, page 16) in order to help authors or project initiators arrive at an action plan.
One of the most common pitfalls when writing a field guide is to seriously underestimate the time and money needed to produce it. Most of us, given the choice, would want to include as many species as possible, with full details of identification, habitat and use, along with a range of high-quality colour photographs for each species. Most of us will also have to search for the funds for such a project. Before embarking on data collection and analysis (steps 4 to 10), it is therefore important to plan and budget in order to balance the needs of potential users and producers with the money, time and skills available.
The early stages are also important for deciding who will be involved in producing the guide. During this time, working roles and relationships are established, available resources (financial, human and information) are identified, and the kind of guide that can be produced within these resources is chosen. It is worth making the guide’s objectives, activities and budget explicit by drawing up a project plan, and making the roles, activities, resources and deadlines clear by preparing an action plan and institutional agreements, where appropriate.
All of this is based, however, on an understanding of the needs of users. We advocate a participatory approach that emphasizes consultation with users and balances their requirements with scientific knowledge in order to ensure that the guide is accurate.
Sound planning is also essential so that the guide may be produced within the limits of the available resources. One of the most common problems with such consultations is that the people who participate become enthusiastic and expect great results; it is
24 Plant Identification
therefore important to be clear about what is asked of them and why – and how this will be transformed into something that they can use.
STEP 1: IDENTIFY THE NEEDS AND PURPOSE OF
THE GUIDE WITH THE STAKEHOLDERS
The consultation process will help to determine what is needed in terms of:
•
the species to be included;
•
the kinds of supporting information that users will need;
•
the kinds of illustrations and symbols that will best suit users’ needs;
•
the format and design that will enable people to find the information they want easily.
Stakeholder analysis for preparing a guide
As explained in Chapter 2, stakeholder involvement helps to ensure that the guide is what the potential users want, and that significant groups all feel proud of their achievement and help to promote the guide. Making decisions on who should be involved in the production of a guide can best be done through a limited stakeholder analysis, which lists the stakeholders and their potential interest in, or contribution to, the guide. A team approach is likely to be more effective than an individual conducting the analysis alone, and is always the best way to carry out a brainstorming exercise. However, a first attempt can be made by the originator of the project.
Box 3.1 explains how to carry out a stakeholder analysis for a field guide, and Table 3.1 provides some examples of both primary and secondary stakeholders in field guides.
Primary stakeholders are those with a direct interest and who are ultimately affected by the results: the target readers (users), the authors and people who may use the guide in other ways, such as local communities who may gain from sales of a field guide or from increased income from tourists visiting the area. Secondary stakeholders are those who can help to produce the guide (or, occasionally, who may wish to stop you from producing the guide if they feel that it competes with their interests). They include people who can provide information for the guide, funders, publishers and experts in particular aspects, such as communication or layout.
The results of the stakeholder analysis will help to carry out the remaining planning activities.
Define the purpose of the guide and users’ needs
The best way to decide on the purpose of the guide, and to relate it to the needs of the users, is to work with representatives of the potential users, either through a workshop or group discussion, or by using a questionnaire to interview key individuals.
In carrying out this consultation, it is helpful to keep in mind that it is important to match up the goals of at least two sets of stakeholders – the users and the authors.
Because the authors are very often the same people as those who carry out the consultation, they must be aware of their own goals and expectations, and not confuse them
Planning and budgeting 25
BOX 3.1 IDENTIFYING THE STAKEHOLDERS
•
Objective: identification of all stakeholders with an interest in the guide, or who would be helpful in its production.
•
Output: list of stakeholders and their interest in the field guide, useful skills and willingness to contribute.
•
Staff: authors, facilitator.
•
Participants: discussions can occur in a small group of people who know the social context or in a larger workshop. If the project is a community guide, then it is best to gain social approval for the process through a workshop. Otherwise, identifying stakeholders will probably be more efficient in a small group of authors and colleagues.
•
Time: two hours.
•
Equipment: flip chart and markers/blackboard and chalk.