Unruly Waters
Page 39
16. Directive on Canal Water Dispute, NAI, MEA, File 6/1/7-XP (P)/49.
17. Manu Goswami, Producing India: From Colonial Economy to National Space (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2004).
18. Gilmartin, Blood and Water, 212; Bashir A. Malik, Indus Waters Treaty in Retrospect (Lahore: Brite Books, 2005), 104.
19. David E. Lilienthal, “Kashmir: Another ‘Korea’ in the Making?,” Collier’s 128, no. 5 (1951): 58.
20. “Today in Earthquake History: Assam, 1950,” Seismo Blog, Berkeley Seismology Lab, accessed March 1, 2018, http://seismo.berkeley.edu/blog/2017/08/15/today-in-earthquake-history-assam-1950.html; M. C. Podder, “Preliminary Report on the Assam Earthquake of 15th August 1950,” Bulletin of the Geological Survey of India, Series B 2 (1950): 1–40; Francis Kingdon Ward, “Aftermath of the Assam Earthquake of 1950,” The Geographical Journal 121 (1955): 290–303.
21. Census of India, 1951, vol. 1, Part 1A (New Delhi: Government Press, 1953).
22. Georges Canguilhem, The Normal and the Pathological, trans. Carolyn R. Fawcett (New York: Zone Books, 1989), 161.
23. Census of India 1951, vol. 1, Part 1A: 126–131.
24. Census of India 1951, vol. 1, Part 1A: 150.
25. Sanjoy Chakravorty, The Price of Land: Acquisition, Conflict, Consequence (New Delhi: Oxford University Press, 2013), see especially chapter 7.
26. Report of American Famine Mission to India, led by T. W. Schultz, cited in Henry Knight, Food Administration in India, 1939–47 (Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 1954), 253; Government of India, Foodgrains Policy Committee, Interim Report (New Delhi, 1948); Government of India, Foodgrains Policy Committee, Final Report (New Delhi, 1948); Report of the Foodgrains Enquiry Committee, 1957 (New Delhi: Ministry of Food & Agriculture, 1957), 26–27.
27. Jawaharlal Nehru’s letter to India’s chief ministers, April 15, 1948, in Letters for a Nation: From Jawaharlal Nehru to His Chief Ministers, 1947–1963, ed. Madhav Khosla (New Delhi: Allen Lane, 2014), 147–148. On the Hirakud Dam, see Rohan D’Souza, “Damming the Mahanadi River: The Emergence of Multi-Purpose River Valley Development in India (1943–46),” Indian Economic and Social History Review 40 (2003): 81–105.
28. Henry C. Hart, New India’s Rivers (Bombay: Orient Longmans, 1956), 250.
29. India, Central Water-Power, Irrigation & Navigation Commission, Quinquennial Report, April 1945–March 1950, p. 2: BL, IOR, V/24/4496.
30. There is an illuminating account of Khosla’s career in Daniel Klingensmith, One Valley and a Thousand: Dams, Nationalism, and Development (New Delhi: Oxford University Press, 2007).
31. A. N. Khosla, “Our Plans,” Indian Journal of Power and River Valley Development [IJPRVD], June 1951: 1–4.
32. India, Central Water & Power Commission, Major Water & Power Projects of India (Bhagirath Pamphlet 1, June 1957).
33. Jawharlal Nehru, speech at the opening of the Nangal Canal, July 8, 1954, in Jawaharlal Nehru: An Anthology, ed. Sarvepalli Gopal (New Delhi: Oxford University Press, 1980), 213–215.
34. “Nehru Shows Chou India’s Dam Project,” New York Times, January 1, 1957, 4.
35. On the history of the Films Division, see Peter Sutoris, Visions of Development: Films Division of India and the Imagination of Progress, 1948–75 (London: Hurst, 2016), which includes a discussion of Ezra Mir’s career; see also, Judith Pernin et al., “The Documentary Film in India, 1948–1975,” undated, Hong Kong Baptist University, last accessed May 13, 2018, http://digital.lib.hkbu.edu.hk/documentary-film/india.php#footnote.
36. Bhakra Nangal, dir. N.S. Thapa, Government of India Films Division (1958).
37. On Lilienthal, see Klingensmith, One Valley and a Thousand.
38. Hart, New India’s Rivers, 97.
39. Hugh Tinker, “A Forgotten Long March: The Indian Exodus from Burma, 1942,” Journal of Southeast Asian Studies 6 (1975): 1–15; Sunil S. Amrith, Crossing the Bay of Bengal: The Furies of Nature and the Fortunes of Migrants (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2013), chapter 6.
40. Letter from the Secretary to the Government of Punjab, Public Works Department, to the Secretary to the Governor General, June 18, 1945, NAI, file no. 21(22)—IA/45; Proceedings of a meeting held on January 31, 1946, between representatives of Madras and Hyderabad: Government of India, Political Branch: Hyderabad Residency; NAI, file no. 92(2), 1946.
41. Hart, New India’s Rivers, 115.
42. “Lathi Charge on Strikers,” Times of India, January 31, 1954, 9.
43. Hart, New India’s Rivers, 178–184.
44. Ashis Nandy, “Dams and Dissent: India’s First Modern Environmental Activist and His Critique of the DVC Project,” Futures 33 (2001): 709–731.
45. World Bank Group Archives, Washington DC [hereafter WBA], File no. 1787276, Indus Basin Dispute, General Negotiations, 1949–52, Correspondence; File no, 1787280, Notes of Mission, September 1–16, 1954; File no. 1787263, Chronology of Indus Waters Dispute. Files 1787269 and 1787270 (Indus Basin Dispute, Working Party, Correspondence vol. 3 & 4), for example, both had several items that had been removed as unsuitable for declassification.
46. M. V. V. Ramana, Inter-State River Water Disputes in India (Hyderabad: Orient Longman, 1992), chapter 4.
47. Sumathi Ramaswamy, The Goddess and the Nation: Mapping Mother India (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 2009), 244.
48. Mother India, dir. Mehboob (1957).
49. Quoted in Ramaswamy, Goddess and the Nation, 243.
50. Sangita Gopal and Sujata Moorti, Global Bollywood: Travels of Hindi Song and Dance (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 2008), 60.
51. Brian Larkin, “Bollywood Comes to Nigeria,” accessed November 14, 2017, www.samarmagazine.org/archive/articles/21.
52. James C. Scott, Seeing Like a State: Why Certain Schemes to Improve the Human Condition Have Failed (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1998); Arturo Escobar, Encountering Development: The Making and Unmaking of the Third World (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1995).
53. Chakravorty, Price of Land, 113–114; Rohan D’Souza, “Framing India’s Hydraulic Crises: The Politics of the Modern Large Dam,” Monthly Review 60 (2008): 112–124.
54. File note, February 23, 1945, Bhakra Dam Project, Government of India, Political Department, IA Branch, NAI, file no. 21(22)—IA/45.
55. File note, Anon., March 12, 1945, Bhakra Dam Project, Government of India, Political Department, IA Branch: NAI, file no. 21(22)—IA/45.
56. File note, Anon., March 12, 1945, NAI, file no. 21(22)—IA/45.
57. Proceedings of a meeting held on January 31, 1946, between representatives of Madras and Hyderabad: Government of India, Political Branch: Hyderabad Residency; NAI, file no. 92(2), 1946, quotations from this file.
58. P. Chaturvedi and A. Dalal, Law of Special Economic Zone: National and International Perspective (Kolkata: Eastern Law House, 2009), 342, cited in Chakravorty, Price of Land, 115.
59. Walter Fernandes and Enakshi Ganguly Thukral, eds., Development, Displacement and Rehabilitation (New Delhi: Indian Social Institute, 1989); Esther Duflo and Rohini Pande, “Dams,” Quarterly Journal of Economics 122 (2007): 601–646; Satyajit Singh, Taming the Waters: The Political Economy of Large Dams in India (New Delhi: Oxford University Press, 1997), 182–203; Chakravorty, Price of Land, quotations on pp. 123–130.
60. Singh, Taming the Waters, 133–158.
61. Jawaharlal Nehru, “Social Aspects of Small and Big Projects,” Inaugural address at the 29th annual meeting of the Central Board of Irrigation and Power, New Delhi, November 17, 1958, in Baldev Singh, Jawaharlal Nehru on Science and Society: A Collection of His Writings and Speeches (New Delhi: Nehru Memorial Museum and Library, 1990), 172–175.
62. United Nations, Economic Commission for Asia and the Far East (ECAFE), Economic Survey of Asia and the Far East, 1948 (Bangkok: ECAFE, 1949); C. Hart Schaaf, “The United Nations Economic Commission for Asia and the Far East,” International Organization 7 (1953): 463–481, q
uotation on p. 468.
63. Hart Schaaf, “Economic Commission for Asia” (1953).
64. Hart Schaaf, “Economic Commission for Asia” (1953), 481.
65. UN, ECAFE, Economic Survey of Asia and the Far East, 1954 (Bangkok: ECAFE, 1955); chapter 10 covers the People’s Republic of China.
66. Kanwar Sain and K. L. Rao, Report on the Recent River Valley Projects in China (New Delhi: Government of India Central Water and Power Commission, 1955), their full itinerary appears in Appendix F; “Mao is our Buddha” reported in Kanwar Sain, Reminiscences of an Engineer (New Delhi: Young Asia Publications, 1978), 208–209.
67. Sain, Reminiscences of an Engineer, 208–209.
68. Sain and Rao, River Valley Projects in China, 206–207; list of Chinese officials in Appendix G.
69. Sain and Rao, River Valley Projects in China, 154.
70. Judith Shapiro, Mao’s War Against Nature: Politics and Environment in Revolutionary China (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2001), chapter 1.
71. Cited in Philip Ball, Water Kingdom: A Secret History of China (Oxford: The Bodley Head, 2016), 225.
72. Sain and Rao, River Valley Projects in China, 162.
73. For an elaboration of the continuity argument, see Ball, Water Kingdom, chapter 8.
74. Sain and Rao, River Valley Projects in China. Hao’s speech is reproduced in Appendix A.
75. Sain, Reminiscences of an Engineer, 210.
76. Christopher Sneddon, Concrete Revolution: Large Dams, Cold War Geopolitics, and the US Bureau of Reclamation (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2015); David Biggs, Quagmire: Nation-Building and Nature in the Mekong Delta (Seattle: University of Washington Press, 2010).
77. Biggs, Quagmire, 172.
78. Sneddon, Concrete Revolution.
79. Sain, Reminiscences of an Engineer, 388–392.
80. Nehru’s letter to Zhou Enlai, September 26, 1959, published in India-China Conflict (New Delhi: Indian Ministry of External Affairs, 1964).
81. Letter from B. C. Mishra, Ministry of External Affairs to Apa B. Pant, Political Officer of the Government of India, Gangtok, Sikkim, October 7, 1960, in India, Ministry of External Affairs, “Construction of dam on Brahmaputra and Indus group of rivers by the Chinese”: NAI, MEA, file F no. 4(75)—T 60.
82. Letter from R. S. Kapoor, Indian trade agent, Gyantse, Tibet to Apa Pant, Political Officer of the Government of India, Gangtok, Sikkim, December 15, 1960: NAI, MEA, file F no. 4(75)—T 60.
83. Letter marked “top secret,” from K. K. Framji, Chief Engineer & Joint Secretary, Ministry of Irrigation and Power to B. C. Mishra, DS (China), Ministry of External Affairs, January 5, 1961: NAI, MEA, file F no. 4(75)—T 60.
84. Rohinton Mistry, Such a Long Journey (London: Faber & Faber, 1991), 10.
CHAPTER EIGHT: THE OCEAN AND THE UNDERGROUND
1. Neel Mukherjee, The Lives of Others (London: Vintage, 2014), 195–197.
2. Indian National Committee on Oceanic Research [hereafter INCOR], International Indian Ocean Expedition: Indian Scientific Programmes, 1962–1965 (New Delhi: Council of Scientific and Industrial Research, 1962), 15.
3. Bernard Bailyn, “The Challenge of Modern Historiography,” American Historical Review 87 (1982): 1–24, quotations on pp. 10–11.
4. Sunil S. Amrith, Crossing the Bay of Bengal: The Furies of Nature and the Fortunes of Migrants (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2013), chapter 7.
5. India, Ministry of External Affairs, Memorandum on the International Conference of Plenipotentiaries on the Law of the Sea [undated, probably late 1957]. NAI, MEA: UN II Section, file no. 9(6) UN II/57.
6. Daniel Behrman, Assault on the Largest Unknown: The International Indian Ocean Expedition (Paris: UNESCO Press, 1981), 10–11; G. E. R. Deacon, “The Indian Ocean Expedition,” Nature 187 (August 13, 1960): 561–562.
7. Warren S. Wooster, “Indian Ocean Expedition,” Science, n.s., 150 (October 15, 1965): 290–292.
8. INCOR, International Indian Ocean Expedition, 15.
9. The Indian Ocean Bubble, issue 5, March 1, 1960, Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution Open Access Server, last accessed March 10, 2018, https://darchive.mblwhoilibrary.org/handle/1912/218.
10. Behrman, Assault, 27.
11. Behrman, Assault, 52.
12. INCOR, International Indian Ocean Expedition, 1–5.
13. Klaus Wyrtki, Oceanographic Atlas of the International Indian Ocean Expedition (Washington, DC: National Science Foundation, 1971).
14. Behrman, Assault, 64.
15. INCOR, International Indian Ocean Expedition, 44.
16. Gilbert T. Walker, “The Atlantic Ocean,” Quarterly Journal of the Royal Meteorological Society 53 (1927): 113.
17. Deacon, “Indian Ocean Expedition”; INCOR, International Indian Ocean Expedition, 12; Wyrtki, Oceanographic Atlas, 7.
18. C. S. Ramage, Monsoon Meteorology (London: Academic Press, 1971), 1; Thomas A. Schroeder, “A Personal View of the History of the Department of Meteorology, University of Hawaii at Manoa” (2006), accessed June 1, 2016, www.soest.hawaii.edu/met/history.pdf.
19. Sanchari Pal, “Anna Mani Is One of India’s Greatest Woman Scientists,” The Better India, January 21, 2017, accessed May 1, 2018, https://www.thebetterindia.com/83063/anna-mani-scientist-meteorology-ozone-wind-energy/.
20. C. S. Ramage, Meteorology in the Indian Ocean (Geneva: World Meteorological Association, 1965).
21. Ramage, Meteorology in the Indian Ocean.
22. Behrman, Assault, 67.
23. Behrman, Assault, 65; C. S. Ramage and C. R. Raman, Meteorological Atlas of the International Indian Ocean Expedition (Washington, DC: US Government Printer, 1972).
24. Behrman, Assault, 66.
25. Ramage, Meteorology in the Indian Ocean.
26. Roger Revelle and H. E. Suess, “Carbon Dioxide Exchange Between Atmosphere and Ocean and the Question of an Increase of Atmospheric CO2 During the Past Decades, ” Tellus 9 (1957): 18–27, quotation on pp. 19–20. On oceanography and the discovery of climate change, see Naomi Oreskes, “Changing the Mission: From the Cold War to Climate Change,” in Science and Technology in the Global Cold War, ed. Naomi Oreskes and John Krige (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 2014), 141–187.
27. Behrman, Assault, 11–12.
28. P. K. Das, The Monsoons (New Delhi: National Book Trust, 1968), 6.
29. Francine Frankel, India’s Political Economy, 1947–1977: The Gradual Revolution (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1980), 247–248.
30. Statistics on Indian wheat imports from Nick Cullather, The Hungry World: America’s Cold War Battle Against Poverty in Asia (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2010), 144; Economic Survey of Indian Agriculture for 1966–67 (New Delhi: Government of India, 1969); Frankel, India’s Political Economy, 293.
31. David Ludden, An Agrarian History of South Asia (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1999), especially chapter 4.
32. David C. Engerman, The Price of Aid: The Economic Cold War in India (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2018); Cullather, Hungry World.
33. Cullather, Hungry World, 207.
34. C. Subramaniam, Hand of Destiny, vol. 2, The Green Revolution (Bombay: Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan, 1993), 137–138.
35. Frankel, India’s Political Economy, 270.
36. Subramaniam, Hand of Destiny, vol. 2, 154, 165–167.
37. “Years Before a Revolution,” Times of India, August 22, 1965.
38. Quoted in Mahesh Rangarajan, “Striving for a Balance: Nature, Power, Science and Indira Gandhi’s India, 1917–1984,” Conservation and Society 7 (2009): 299–312.
39. Cullather, Hungry World, 223.
40. Paul R. Brass, “The Political Uses of Crisis: The Bihar Famine of 1966–1967,” Journal of Asian Studies 45 (1986): 245–267, 249.
41. Ronald E. Doel and Kristine C. Harper, “Prometheus Unleashed: Science as a Diplomatic Weapon in the Lyndon B. Johnson Administration,” Osiris 21 (2006): 66–85.
42. James R. Fleming, Fixing the Sky: The Checkered History of Weather and Climate Control (New York: Columbia University Press, 2010); Kristine C. Harper, Make It Rain: State Control of the Atmosphere in Twentieth Century America (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2017).
43. Lyndon B. Johnson, The Vantage Point: Perspectives of the Presidency, 1963–1969 (New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1971), 226.
44. Doel and Harper, “Prometheus Unleashed,” 80, 83.
45. Rajni Kothari, “The Congress ‘System’ in India,” Asian Survey 4 (1964): 1161–1173; Confidential Despatch from British High Commission, Delhi to London, 3 March 1967, in United Kingdom National Archives (UKNA), “India—Political Affairs—Internal” FO 37/35.
46. Ashutosh Varshney, Democracy, Development, and the Countryside: Urban-Rural Struggles in India (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1998), 57.
47. Geoffrey Parker, Global Crisis: War, Climate Change & Catastrophe in the Seventeenth Century (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2013); Sam White, The Climate of Rebellion in the Early Modern Ottoman Empire (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2011).
48. Indira Gandhi, “Man and Environment,” speech at the Plenary Session of United Nations Conference on Human Environment, Stockholm, June 14, 1972: full text available at http://lasulawsenvironmental.blogspot.com/2012/07/indira-gandhis-speech-at-stockholm.html, last accessed May 14, 2018.
49. Paul Ehrlich, The Population Bomb (New York: Ballantine Books, 1968), 15–16.
50. Indira Gandhi, “Man and Environment,” speech at the Plenary Session of United Nations Conference on Human Environment, Stockholm, June 14, 1972; Jairam Ramesh, “Poverty Is the Greatest Polluter: Remembering Indira Gandhi’s Stirring Speech in Stockholm,” The Wire, June 7, 2017, accessed November 30, 2017, https://thewire.in/144555/indira-gandhi-nature-pollution/.
51. On coercive population control in India, see Matthew Connelly, Fatal Misconception: The Struggle to Control World Population (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2008); Emma Tarlo, Unsettling Memories: Narratives of the Emergency in Delhi (London: Hurst, 2003).
52. Shyam Divan and Armin Rosencranz, eds., Environmental Law and Policy in India: Cases, Materials and Statutes (New Delhi: Oxford University Press, 2001), 167–241; the case cited is Aggarwal Textile Industries v. State of Rajasthan, S.B.C. Writ Petition No. 1375/80, March 2, 1981, presented in Divan and Rosencranz, Environmental Law, 187.