Amy T Peterson, Valerie Hewitt, Heather Vaughan, et al
Page 5
themes of these films. Veronica Lake, an actress famous for her long, sul-
try hair, began to pull her hair back into an upsweep and publicly
requested women in factories to do the same for safety. Even subtle styling
in movies hinted at the impact the war had on fashion. For instance, Casa-
blanca, with all of its intrigue, showed Humphrey Bogart with his trench
coat belt knotted, not buckled, as metal was diverted to the war effort.
At the start of the 1900s, the ‘‘S’’ silhouette was fashionable. The
tightly corseted waist of this silhouette was offset by the ample, and often
padded, bosom and the round bottom. By the 1910s, the corseting had
loosened and waists resumed a somewhat more natural shape. Skirts
became shorter and more functional, and women began to wear untucked
tunics over skirts by the end of the decade.
A boyish pencil-thin silhouette marked the 1920s. Hemlines rose to
mid-calf and, in some cases, nearly knee-length. At the same time waist-
lines lowered, hair was bobbed and topped by a close-fitting cloche style
hat. The economic hardships brought about by the Great Depression soon
changed the ideal body shape for both men and women: thin was no lon-
ger in. Shapely curves for women and broad shoulders for men helped
camouflage weight loss brought on by malnourishment.
The 1940s came with renewed prosperity and wartime frugality. Fab-
rics and metals were to be conserved so the silhouette was streamlined to
minimize the use of materials. Details such as lapels, buckles, and pocket
flaps were omitted from clothing. Women often had to assume the man’s
role at home, and soon the woman’s silhouette sported masculine shoulder
pads and close-fitting skirts.
Every period has its own ideal of beauty, shaped by the political, social,
and cultural events of its time. Taken out of context, fashion can often
appear ludicrous. Only when examined as an element of an era can fashion
be understood. The first half of the twentieth century was marked by
numerous significant political and cultural changes: war, activism, fluctua-
tions in immigrant populations, and changes in the perception of women,
all of which manifested themselves in the fashions worn by men, women,
and children. Society was transformed, changing the way people viewed
the world around them, and fashion reflected those changes.
18
THE UNITED STATES IN 1900–1949
R E F E R E N C E S
Berkin, C., Miller, C. L., Cherny, R. W., and Gormly, J. L. 1995. Making Amer-
ica: A History of the United States. Boston: Houghton Mifflin.
Israel, B. 2002. Bachelor Girl: The Secret History of Single Women in the Twentieth
Century. New York: William Morrow.
Kurian, G. T. 1994. Datapedia of the United States, 1790–2000. Lanham, MD:
Bernan Press.
McKay, J. P. 1999. A History of Western Society. New York: Hougton Mifflin.
Perrett, G. 1982. America in the Twenties, A History. New York: Simon and
Schuster.
Rowbotham, S. 1997. A Century of Women. New York: Penguin Books.
U.S. Bureau of Citizenship and Immigration Services. Statistical Yearbook, Annual.
U.S. Census Bureau. 2001. No. HS-20. Education Summary—Enrollment, 1900 to
2000, and Projections.
U.S. Census Bureau. April 11, 2002. Current Population Reports, P25–311, P25–
802, and P25–1095.
U.S. Census Bureau. No. HS-16. Expectation of Life at Birth by Race and Sex,
1900 to 2001.
U.S. Census Bureau. No. HS30. Marital Status of Women in the Civilian Labor
Force: 1900 to 2002.
Zinn, H. 1995. A People’s History of the United States. New York: Harpers
Perennial.
2
Political and Cultural Events
The political and cultural scene of the first half of the twentieth century
included two world wars and a dramatic shift of world and economic
power. The 1940s ended with an optimism that was paralleled by the op-
timism of the 1900s. At the turn of the century, Americans, energized by
the Progressive movement, tackled social issues in the communities in
which they lived. In urban areas, they waged war on the poverty around
them and created organizations to help the vast numbers of immigrants
assimilate and succeed in America.
President Theodore Roosevelt, himself a Progressivism proponent, led
the nation in a war against ‘ big business.’’ His agenda aimed to reduce
the political power of monopolies. This task seemed herculean, not only
because of the size of these companies and the dollars in their coffers but
also because of the rapid technological advances that kept the money
pouring in.
WWI, originally known as the Great War, was the defining event of
the 1910s. President Woodrow Wilson did his best to keep the United
States out of the war, but, in 1917, he broke American isolation to help
the European countries that were being devastated by the war. The Allies’
victory in the war solidified the status of the United States as a world
power, but the dissatisfaction with the peace treaty on the part of Ger-
many and Italy would lead to another world war in a few decades.
19
20
POLITICAL AND CULTURAL EVENTS
Immigrants living in the United States experienced hostility from
Americans who had lived in the country for generations. Recent immi-
grants, including the large wave of eastern and southern Europeans,
received the brunt of the hostility. The 1910s would see the last large
wave of immigrants in the first half of the century.
The government and unions continued to attack big business during
the 1910s. The Clayton Antitrust Act of 1914 made it illegal to create
monopolies, and the government began breaking up the giant companies
that had dominated the landscape a decade earlier. Unions fought against
poor working conditions, long work hours, and low pay.
The 1920s were a period of great prosperity and a more lenient atti-
tude toward businesses. After President Warren Harding’s scandal-ridden
term in office, President Calvin Coolidge assumed the presidency and
worked with businesses in an effort to get them to cooperate with each
other.
Urban areas grew as Americans progressively abandoned rural life for
the opportunities in the factories of cities. Segregation between African
Americans and whites was enforced in the south. In the north, African
Americans began to create economic and cultural enclaves in Harlem in
New York and Bronzeville in Chicago.
The prosperity and parties of the 1920s effectively ended in 1929
when the stock market crashed, wiping out many Americans’ savings.
Many people lost their jobs and, at the extreme, had to sell off their pos-
sessions and became homeless. For most people, the following decade
became one of few resources. They had to use ingenuity, take on addi-
tional work, budget carefully, and make the most out of what they had.
Minorities were hit especially hard because of discrimination. Many
unemployed whites felt animosity toward African Americans and Mexi-
cans wh
o had jobs.
FDR focused on restoring the country’s financial institutions and
Americans’ livelihoods. He tried to instill hope and encouragement
regarding the economy, and he implemented numerous programs to ease
Americans’ burdens. Despite his efforts, the country did not get much
relief from the Depression until the United States entered WWII.
Like Woodrow Wilson, FDR tried to keep America out of what was
seen as a European war, but the United States was drawn into the war
when the Japanese attacked the U.S. naval base Pearl Harbor, in the Pa-
cific, in 1941. The United States quickly mobilized, and able-bodied men
were called up to serve their country. Wartime production escalated at
American factories, and, as men went to fight overseas, they created a
labor shortage. Women and minorities took their place in factory jobs.
The 1900s
21
Rationing and scarcity of goods reduced wartime commercial consump-
tion, so most Americans were able to build up their savings.
After the war ended, Americans enjoyed renewed prosperity. In the last
half of the 1940s, Americans embraced consumerism as they were released
from rationing and factories switched over to commercial production. The
G.I. (for ‘ government issue’’) Bill offered education opportunities and home
loans to returning servicemen, which eased their transition back to civilian
life. It also encouraged movement to suburbs and newly built single-family
homes. In essence, the American people shifted from a rural, to an urban,
and finally to a suburban culture during the first half of the century.
T H E
1900S
GOVERNMENT AND POLITICAL MOVEMENTS
Americans were very hopeful on January 1, 1900, and that optimism col-
ored the decade. It was considered the beginning of a new millennium, and
many hoped that the new century was the beginning of a better future.
The depression of the 1890s was history for most of the country. Gold had
been discovered in Alaska, and gold had replaced silver as the basis for the
American dollar. New political ideas were emerging, and people were be-
ginning to look at social issues, wanting to make life better for everyone.
The United States had beaten Spain in the Spanish-American war and had
acquired territory around the globe. Americans were getting used to the
idea that those territories might somehow make their lives better, as well as
make the United States more important in the eyes of the world. Life
seemed full of promise.
One indicator of the change that was to come was the strengthening of
the Progressive and Socialist Parties. The Socialist Party considered capital-
ism as the source of the world’s social problems. Eugene Debs, who founded
the party in 1901, advocated ideas such as an eight-hour workday, a mini-
mum wage for all workers, and government ownership of communications,
transportation, banking, and finance. Although the Socialists managed to
win several elections at the state and municipal level, they never managed to
win any national elections. Americans of the time liked many of the Social-
ists’ goals but were unable to completely accept the idea of a state-controlled
economy. Although many people did not like the control of the country that
big business had, few people were willing to allow the government to
assume control. Socialism slowly lost popularity, and its followers found the
goals of the Progressive Party to be an adequate substitute.
22
POLITICAL AND CULTURAL EVENTS
The Progressive Party had its birth in the years before 1900, but the
growth of the economy, the growing American presence around the world,
the growth of the cities, and the new political era allowed many people to
become more interested in social issues. The improved economy allowed
some people to earn enough that they could enjoy more leisure time. The
urban middle class was growing, and many of them used their leisure time
for civic activities. Women were becoming more active in their commun-
ities and working to help improve the lives of the poor and of children.
Many young, educated, middle-class women postponed marriage to work
toward goals of improving their community’s social problems.
Politically, the country was beginning an unexpected and unforeseen
set of changes. In the years since the U.S. Civil War, Congress had gradu-
ally gained such power that the position of president of the United States
had become little more than a title. The people who gained great fortunes
in the late 1800s, such as the Vanderbilt family and J. P. Morgan, had
been able to convince or bribe Congress into doing what big business
wanted. A young politician by the name of Theodore Roosevelt had
become an irritant to big business. Roosevelt had gained popularity after
his successes as a leader of the ‘‘Rough Riders’’ in the Spanish-American
War in the 1890s. He used that popularity to gain political power.
The business moguls and congressional leaders were unhappy with
Roosevelt’s perceived anti-business views. They decided that the easiest
way to keep Roosevelt from gaining more power was to make him vice-
president of the United States. Their expectation was that Roosevelt
would fade from memory because the vice presidency was considered a
dead-end job. No one, especially business leaders, realized exactly how the
world would change when President William McKinley was shot by an
anarchist early in 1901 and Roosevelt became president. Although some
people did not like the new president, no one could foresee that Roosevelt
would make the presidency more powerful than it had been in decades,
attempt to curb the power of big business, and change how the country
viewed itself and its position in the world.
ECONOMIC TRENDS
In the 1890s, the country had fallen into a major economic depression
that lasted for several years. Many people in the country felt the results
of that depression, and times were hard. It was only at the end of the
1890s that the country began to see hope in their future. This hope slowly
grew and took hold in the early 1900s. Many of the choices people made
in the early part of the century were based in their memories of the
The 1900s
23
depression of the 1890s. The depression, the beginning of a new century,
and the sudden political changes brought on by the unexpected and
shocking assassination of William McKinley caused people to wonder
whether things would be better as they had been before the depression or
whether it was necessary to look at new ways to solve old economic
problems.
Before the turn of the century, there was a great debate over whether
gold or silver should be the basis of the country’s economy. Many voters
felt that the decision would help pull America out of the depression. Dur-
ing the 1900 election, William Jennings Bryan had declared himself an
advocate for making silver the basis of the economy. McKinley focused
his campaign on foreign policy. Most of the discussion regarding the silver
a
nd gold issue stopped after the Gold Standard Act of 1900 was passed,
although the question would reemerge when Bryan ran against William
H. Taft in 1908.
Technology seemed to be advancing at a rapid pace. The first plane
flew at Kitty Hawk, North Carolina, in 1903. As automobiles became
easier to drive and repair, they became increasingly popular. Machinery
became more complicated but was able to replace the need for manpower.
The technological advances gave some people the opportunity for
increased leisure, but it also increased the numbers of workers whose skills
were not up-to-date in the new technological age.
Not only did Americans need to find ways to acquire new skills, the
country faced a huge increase in the number of immigrants who entered
the country at the end of the 1800s and the first decade of the 1900s.
They came to the United States looking for new opportunities and to
escape the difficult conditions in their native countries. Upon arriving in
the United States, many immigrants lived in cramped, unsanitary quar-
ters, and they faced an unwelcome reception from Americans, many of
whom were immigrants themselves, because they thought the immigrants
would take away their jobs.
INTERNATIONAL DEVELOPMENTS
At the beginning of the 1900s, the world was beginning to change as well
as shrink, although few realized it at the time. The Spanish, who had
long been considered a world power, were defeated by the young United
States in the Spanish-American War in 1898 and 1899, which surprised a
lot of people. Spain lost much of its control over territory in the Ameri-
cas. Later, when Theodore Roosevelt became president, he reinforced the
idea of the Monroe Doctrine, and the influence of the United States grew
24
POLITICAL AND CULTURAL EVENTS
as Spain’s diminished. When it was crafted in 1823, the Monroe Doctrine
prevented European countries from colonizing in any of the Americas and
proclaimed that the United States would remain neutral in European
affairs unless it was provoked. Roosevelt added a component to the doc-
trine by considering any attempt to colonize in the Americas as a threat
to U.S. security.
The United States acquired territory that had belonged to Spain,
including Cuba, Guam, the Philippines, and Puerto Rico. Although the