Amy T Peterson, Valerie Hewitt, Heather Vaughan, et al
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The Republicans, assured of continued success, nominated Herbert
Hoover for president in 1928, and he won 58 percent of the vote (Campbell
2000, 66). Hoover rode a tide of popularity until the fall of 1929. At that
time, shares on the New York Stock Exchange started fluctuating wildly.
Finally, on Tuesday, October 29, 1929, shares dropped and stayed low.
Money that had been invested in stocks evaporated. Many big businessmen
and middle-class people saw their life savings disappear.
INTERNATIONAL DEVELOPMENTS
After the Great War, President Woodrow Wilson wanted the United
States to participate in a League of Nations. The League would be an or-
ganization of the nations of the world that, in theory, would be able to
settle disputes and prevent future wars. The League was largely developed
by Wilson. He had idealistic plans for the organization, but he had to
modify those plans when the leaders of other countries insisted on a vari-
ety of changes. Most of those changes were based in the antagonism and
biases that that helped to start the Great War, but Wilson had to modify
his plans or risk having the entire idea destroyed. Wilson battled to get
the Congress to allow the United States to become a member of the
League, but Congress refused. The League, an idea born before its time,
was never able to live up to the ideals of Wilson’s vision.
The United States had become a world power after the country helped
win the Great War. Most European countries, even those who had not
been defeated, had to rebuild their economies after the war. The defeated
countries, Germany especially, were required to pay reparations to the
countries that had conquered them. These reparations were frequently
major problems for a growing economy. As the years progressed, the pay-
ments were adjusted and were less of a problem economically, but they
became a point of contention. Hitler, for example, used the payments
to incite hatred of those who won the war. These people, according to
Hitler, were the western countries who were ‘‘run by the very rich Jewish
bankers.’’
After WWI, the people of Germany and Italy both felt that they had
been wronged by the outcome of the war. This established the
The 1920s
37
environment for two men, Adolf Hitler in Germany and Benito Mussolini
in Italy, to enter politics with the idea that their countries should return
to their glory days and rule Europe and the rest of the world. Mussolini
was able to assume control of Italy during the 1920s because of an absence
of any other leader. Hitler’s rise to power took several years; he took
advantage of the time by increasing his power base slowly but surely.
Ironically, he assumed the chancellorship of Germany in 1932, the same
year that FDR became president of the United States. Both Hitler and
Mussolini took advantage of the fears and discriminatory beliefs of their
people and pledged that their countries would become ‘ pure,’’ without the
ethnicities that had helped to destroy their countries in the past. These
leaders claimed that Jews were responsible for the economic woes of both
countries and therefore had to leave or otherwise be eliminated.
ETHNICITY IN AMERICA
After the Great War, the United States seemed to socially withdraw unto
itself. It did not want to become entangled with the affairs of nations out-
side of the two American continents. Many Americans seemed to think
that the war was a ‘‘foreign’ problem and that ‘‘foreigners’’ should solve
their own problems in the future. The country was willing to trade with
other countries, as long as American businesses were not economically
hurt, but the country seemed to want to isolate itself from the problems
of the rest of the world. This isolationism helped create a sense of ‘Amer-
ica First,’’ which in turn contributed to the idea that foreigners were not
always wanted in the United States.
This anti-foreigner attitude was not against all foreign-born people.
The popular concept was that anyone who was not white, Anglo-Saxon,
and Protestant was not really welcome any longer. In 1924, the Johnson-
Reed Act was passed, restricting the number of immigrants who could
come from outside the western hemisphere. Those immigrants, especially
those from southern Europe, Asia, or Africa, who were already in the
country, were not readily accepted into American communities. These
ethnic groups tended therefore to cluster together in enclaves that became
ghettos in many large cities.
The Ku Klux Klan saw a rebirth after the Great War. Originally a
white supremacist group that wanted to suppress African Americans, the
Klan grew in the 1920s into an organization that wanted to restore a
so-called Anglo-Saxon ‘ purity.’’ The organization targeted specifically
African Americans, Jews, and Catholics, although Klans in individual
communities might have targeted other ethnic groups.
38
POLITICAL AND CULTURAL EVENTS
In some communities, especially in rural areas, there was a rebirth of
fundamentalist Protestant beliefs. More liberal Protestants were consid-
ered impure and an indication of how urban areas could corrupt and
destroy American society. Many fundamentalists believed that science, lib-
eral ideas, and the different cultures that had ‘ invaded’ the country were
destroying the ideals that made America a powerful nation that could win
the Great War.
This fear of ideas outside of fundamentalist belief was nationally pub-
licized in Dayton, Tennessee, in 1925 when a young biology teacher, John
Scopes, defied fundamentalist teachings by teaching Charles Darwin’s
Theory of Evolution in his classes. William Jennings Bryan, who had run
unsuccessfully for the American presidency, was the lawyer who prose-
cuted Scopes. Clarence Darrow, a famous liberal trial lawyer of the era,
came to Dayton to defend Scopes. The trial riveted the American popula-
tion. Many Americans rejected the fundamentalist argument, and many
fundamentalists retreated from the political arena. Scopes was convicted
of violating school policy and accepted standards. Many publishers of
textbooks noticed the trial publicity and removed references to Darwin
and evolution from their texts. This policy remained in effect until the
1960s.
Immigrants from Mexico became the new ‘ cheap labor’ in the 1920s,
especially after the passage of the Johnson-Reed Act. They migrated pri-
marily into the southwestern states, with a large influx into southern Cali-
fornia. Many California cities grew rapidly during the 1920s as their
Mexican communities grew. There were so many Mexicans in the south-
west that they were able to develop their own radio stations as well as
newspapers and even their own movies and theatres.
Eastern Europeans tended to remain in the northeastern and midwest-
ern states. Large cities such as New York, Philadelphia, and Chicago saw
a rapid increase in ethnic communities. Like the Mexican communities in
the southwest,
these ethnic communities developed many subcultures that
included their own radio stations and other activities. These ethnicities
tended to adapt to the larger culture, learning English and being accepted
as part of the larger American culture, but that usually occurred in the
second and third generations of individual families. These ethnic groups
were ostracized and restricted to low-wage jobs with poor working condi-
tions. The Republicans were seen to be responsible for this discrimination,
so many ethnic groups began a push to register their members in
the Democratic party. This surge of ethnic Democrats could not help the
party win the 1924 presidential election, but they did contribute to
Hoover’s defeat in the 1928 election.
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39
Many African Americans had left the south after the Civil War, but they
did not find the freedom and equality that they had hoped to find. African
Americans were usually only allowed to live in areas that were specifically
designated for them. These areas tended to be the poorer areas of a town or
city, with limited city services such as sanitation. Given the high concentra-
tion of African Americans in these areas, many died because of disease.
One of the largest and probably the best-known African-American
communitties was Harlem, in New York City. Harlem was ideally located
to benefit from all the new ideas, fads, and trends that came to New York
City. Many talented and educated African Americans moved to Harlem
to participate in this activity. The area prospered and attracted even more
talented and educated African Americans. The Harlem Renaissance was a
result of this influx of talent and creativity.
The Harlem clubs became hotbeds of activity around the popular
forms of music that had been mostly confined to the smaller African-
American communities. Jazz, the blues, and ragtime became popular in
the larger, white community. Many white New Yorkers would come to
the Harlem clubs to hear bands play the new music and hear the new
musicians, such as Louis Armstrong, Duke Ellington, and Billie Holliday.
Poets such as Langston Hughes would also be featured at these clubs to
read their poetry while the music played and whites danced. Ironically,
the clubs that fostered the African-American culture were often owned
by whites. African Americans were only allowed into the clubs if they
worked there; they were not allowed admission to the clubs, even if they
could afford the entry price.
During the Great Depression, ethnicities were discriminated against
as they had been in previous decades. It would not be until the later part
of the twentieth century that the civil rights movement would begin to
address some of the blatant discrimination ethnicities suffered during the
early part of the century.
T H E
1930S
GOVERNMENT AND POLITICAL MOVEMENTS
Hoover’s successor, FDR, was a wealthy man from a patrician family who
managed to be seen as a man of and for the people. Stricken with polio as
a young man, FDR sent his wife, Eleanor, around the country to visit a
variety of people in a variety of circumstances. She was his eyes and ears
and she reported what she encountered on her trips. She was the first
40
POLITICAL AND CULTURAL EVENTS
visibly active first lady in the nation’s history. Her presence and her ability
to listen to what she was told helped FDR maintain his popularity
throughout his presidency.
Initially, FDR’s main concern was with the country’s economy. He used
the radio to broadcast a series of fireside chats to tell the American public
what was happening around the country. Many Americans would gather
around the radio to listen to what FDR had to say, and the fact that he
was willing to ‘‘talk to them’ seem to give the country hope and encour-
agement. FDR seemed approachable, a complete contrast to Hoover.
As the economy improved, FDR’s attention was drawn to interna-
tional politics. He was aware of the change in Europe and the increasing
popularity of Hitler and Mussolini. He also began to distrust the increas-
ing aggression of the Japanese government. Roosevelt realized that the
American people still remembered the Great War of 1917 and the coun-
try did not want to become involved in foreign problems. Believing that
the United States would, at best, have to protect itself against other mili-
tary powers, FDR kept a quiet watch over international affairs, building a
strong relationship with the British.
FDR did have his critics. Many Americans believed that FDR’s poli-
cies were aimed at businesses and management. Many people did not feel
as if the Democratic agenda was benefiting them. Huey Long, a senator
from Louisiana and a former governor of that state, acquired a large fol-
lowing throughout the south and midwest. Long might have been a chal-
lenge to FDR during the 1936 elections, but Long was assassinated
before the campaign began.
An anti-Semitic priest, Father Charles Coughlin, also used the radio
to tell Americans that FDR’s policies were only helping ‘‘rich Jewish
bankers’’ in large cities. Coughlin developed increasingly conservative
views that criticized the democratic form of government and what he
believed to be the control of the government by the Jews. By the end of
the 1930s, many radio stations would refuse to broadcast his speeches, but
many Americans continued to believe in Coughlin’s policies.
By the end of the decade, labor had begun to challenge management
and corporate America. Labor unions, such as the United Mine Workers,
the United Auto Workers, the American Federation of Labor, and the
Congress of Industrial Organizations, began to gain strength. Movies and
popular literature portrayed labor unions as being the voice of the Ameri-
can people, and the growth of labor unions helped curtail the power that
corporate America had during decades of Republican presidencies.
The shift from corporate power to the people also encouraged a series
of activities by individuals. Charles Lindbergh was the first to fly solo
The 1930s
41
across the Atlantic and received a hero’s welcome when he returned to the
United States. Amelia Earhart became the first female aviator to fly solo
across the Atlantic. Earhart’s popularity did not completely reflect the
attitudes of the country toward women. Many corporations would not
hire married women. Despite the achievements of Earhart, Mrs. Roose-
velt, and others like them, the country continued to believe the Victorian
notions that women were fragile and needed extra protection.
ECONOMIC TRENDS
The 1930s were largely shaped by the Great Depression. The stock mar-
ket crash of 1929 was not the sole cause the Great Depression. The eco-
nomic difficulties of the 1930s were the result of the business practices of
the 1920s. Many other countries also experienced some level of economic
depression in the 1930s. The practices and policies of the 1920s caused a
slow
deterioration that had gone unnoticed until the crash. The crash was
a profound, memorable occasion that would remain in the minds of most
people. They knew bad times were coming, but they could not expect the
decade that followed the seemingly prosperous 1920s.
President Herbert Hoover had been secretary of commerce during
Coolidge’s administration. Hoover believed that cooperation between
businesses, rather than government intervention, would improve business.
After the crash, Hoover would not allow the government to directly inter-
vene in the affairs of individual Americans. He thought that people
needed an incentive to work; if the government gave indigent, unem-
ployed, and homeless people some form of government handout, then
people would lose the incentive to work. His administration only loaned
money to corporations that were likely to repay the loan.
When a group of WWI veterans asked the government in 1932 for
early payment of a bonus that Congress had granted them, the House
agreed to discuss the issue with them, but the Senate refused. Hoover
refused to meet with the veterans. The veterans camped in Washington,
DC, demanding their appeals be considered. Hoover sent federal troops
led by General Douglas MacArthur to their encampment. The veterans’
shanties were burned and the veterans were forced out of Washington.
Regardless of what Americans thought of the veterans’ request, many
were appalled at Hoover’s apparent disregard for their safety. When the
elections were held later that year, Hoover was turned out of office when
his opponent, FDR, won by a landslide.
FDR, a cousin of Theodore Roosevelt, won the 1932 election easily.
He was a personable individual who was never seen publicly as an invalid,
42
POLITICAL AND CULTURAL EVENTS
although his movements were limited because of polio. FDR immediately
started a variety of plans aimed at restoring the nation’s financial institu-
tions and the economic health of the American people. These plans were
often referred to as ‘ alphabet’ programs because most of them were
known by letters. The Federal Emergency Relief Administration granted
money to the poor. The Civilian Conservation Corps created environ-
mentally friendly jobs for millions of men. The Homeowners Loan Cor-
poration helped homeowners refinance their mortgages. One of the