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1Dawson, G., & Galpert, L. Mothers’ use of imitative play for facilitating social responsiveness and toy play in young autistic children. Development and Psychopathology, 2, 151–162, 1990.
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Let’s Get Technical
How Children Learn
Chapter goal: To explain the basic principles and underlying strategies for helping your child engage, communicate, and learn, so you can apply these in new ways to boost your child’s learning.
Chapters 4,5,6,7,8 have provided the building blocks that form the foundation for your child’s learning. If you have followed along and practiced these strategies, you have already accomplished a lot and have likely seen a noticeable increase in your child’s ability to engage, communicate, and learn. Good for you! Now we want to provide some background on how kids learn, so you can use these underlying principles flexibly in new situations as your child moves forward and meets new learning challenges.
With an understanding of antecedents (events that immediately precede a behavior), behaviors (your child’s goal-directed actions), and consequences—the ABC’s of learning—you can motivate and teach new and even more sophisticated behaviors you want your child to learn, from pretending to starting to speak. These principles are based on the science of applied behavior analysis (ABA). In Chapter 1 we have explained that ABA is the application of the science of learning to help people learn new behaviors or change existing ones, including. reducing the frequency of problem behaviors. We use these principles—the ABC’s of learning—throughout the chapters of the book.
WHY APPLIED BEHAVIOR ANALYSIS IS SO IMPORTANT
We have defined what ABA is, but you may not know that it isn’t one specific intervention approach. This is a common misunderstanding. ABA is applying the science of learning to understanding and changing specific behaviors, and it underlies many different early intervention approaches for children. Discrete Trial Training, Pivotal Response Teaching, the Early Start Denver Model, Reciprocal Imitation Training, Milieu Teaching, and Incidental Teaching all use the principles of ABA.
You’ve been using them too! If you’ve been following the chapters up to this point and trying the strategies from each one with your child, you have taught your child a number of skills. In other words, you’ve encouraged new skill learning in your child by making it worthwhile for your child to learn what you’re teaching. Because we’ve found it so helpful for parents to learn new habits of interacting with their children, we’ve been walking you through the use of these without using the technical terms of ABA, to help you get started. But the truth is that even your own behavior has been shaped by the principles of learning! You’ve been following the “rules” of learning new behaviors too; you’ve been trying new strategies, and the rewarding consequence of your applying these strategies has been experiencing the delight of seeing your child learn from you, right before your eyes. Pretty motivating, isn’t it?
Now is a good time to understand the “rules” of learning in a more technical way, because this is likely to help you become more aware of many things:
1. Your own behavior
2. The meaning and goals that underlie your child’s behaviors
3. How various situations lead to, or cue, your child’s behaviors
4. How various events that follow your child’s behavior reward your child for behaving in certain ways
Once you understand how the ABC’s of learning work to build and maintain your child’s current set of behaviors, you will have the tools you need to (1) teach your child new ways of behaving that are more age-appropriate or more acceptable (encouraging desirable behaviors and discouraging undesirable ones); (2) increase the number of learning opportunities for your child that are potentially present in every daily activity; and (3) help your child take full advantage of these learning opportunities you are providing.
What’s Happening in Autism?
Children with autism respond to the ABC’s of learning just like everyone else, but three aspects of autism demand a much more explicit focus on their learning than we need for other children:
1. Children with ASD are not as interested as other children in pleasing other people. Most children appear quite aware of their parents’ pleasure, or displeasure, in response to what they say and do. Thus their parents’ approval or disapproval naturally serves to shape children’s behavior, since children are motivated to gain parental attention and approval. Children with autism, however, are usually not so aware of or affected by the subtle (or even not so subtle) social consequences of their behavior, and therefore aren’t as likely to do what adults want them to do just to please them.
2. Children with autism are less interested than other children in sharing their experiences with others. Most small children share with others by making eye contact, smiling, giving or showing objects, and pointing out interesting objects to their parents. For example, by the age of 12–18 months, most children will start pointing to things they find interesting, labeling them, and then looking toward their parents to share or show what they are noticing. They want their parents’ attention and response. However, these child behaviors—joint attention behaviors—are quite infrequent in young children with ASD. And without these tools in their repertoire, they miss out on an enormous amount of language learning, social learning, and interpersonal connectedness. This is why you’ve been developing ways to promote what is known as shared attention, or joint attention, with your child in many of the strategies you’ve already learned. We focus very specifically on teaching joint attention in Chapter 10.
3. Children with autism imitate others less than other children their age do. Other children seem to have an internal goal of being like others, and to find their own personal pleasure in doing what others do and doing so independently. A child without ASD wants to handle a spoon alone, put on her own socks and shoes, do what her big brother or sister can do. We’ve heard many parents of children with autism say, “I think he would happily have me dress [or feed, diaper, etc.] him forever; he doesn’t seem to have any desire to be independent or to do things for himself.” Children with autism may imitate another person to make a toy work or to get to the cookie they want—in other words, to achieve a goal—but usually not just to “be like” another. Without that powerful goal, a child with autism does not practice skills he sees others use, and so he misses out on learning social and adaptive behavior from observing others. That’s why we spent so much time on teaching imitation in Chapter 8: to help your child build up motivation to do what others do.
Why Is It a Problem?
Because children with autism are less interested in pleasing others, sharing their experiences with others, and imitating others, they miss out on many ABC learning opportunities that are present in the daily caregiving and play that provide most children with constant learning opportunities. These missed opportunities are reflected in the developmental delays—in language development, gestural development, self-care skills, and social play—that are part of the profile of early autism. Since children with autism have difficulty using existing social interactions as learning opportunities, those around them need to make those opportunities more explicit. That’s the good news: It is possible to teach a child with autism to enjoy the praise of others, to enjoy sharing and imitating others! To make this happen in a wider set of circumstances and with a wider set of behaviors, you need to know the basic principles that are operating when learning occurs.
When Molly sees big sister Tina get some milk from the refrigerator, she screams and grabs at Tina to get the milk. Dad says to Tina, “Your sister wants some milk. Give it to her and get more for yourself.” Tina cooperatively hands Molly the glass of milk and gets another. What has happened here? Molly’s behaviors involve screaming and grabbing (occurring in response to the antecedent of seeing another person with some milk) and have resulted in a positive consequence, or reinforcement: She has achieved her goal and gotten t
he milk she wanted. Next time Molly sees someone with a glass of milk and she wants it, she will be more likely to scream and grab. A well-meaning father, who cares about his daughter and understands her desires, has inadvertently rewarded her unwanted behavior by having her sister hand over the milk. As you’ll see, applying the learning principles described in this chapter can dramatically change the outcome of situations like this.
What You Can Do to Understand and Teach
the ABC’s of Learning to Your Child
There are six specific steps you can carry out to increase your understanding of the ABC’s of learning and teach your child new skills and appropriate behaviors:
Step 1. Pay attention to what your child does: B is for behavior.
Step 2. Choose the reward: C is for consequence.
Step 3. Identify what came first, right before the behavior occurred: A is for antecedent.
Step 4. Put the ABC’s of learning together.
Step 5. Use the ABC’s to increase your child’s learning opportunities and teach your child new skills and behaviors.
Step 6. Change unwanted behaviors.
Step 1. Pay Attention to What Your Child Does: B is for Behavior
Rationale. All behavior is lawful. In other words, all children do the things they do for a reason. Behind every single action your child (or anyone else) performs is a reason—a goal for that behavior—and no matter how unusual the action is, there is a logic to it, a reason why the person is doing it. This goes for what people say as well as what they do; it also goes for what they don’t do. When you see your child doing something that makes no sense to you, stop and ask yourself, “What is her goal?” It will often be clear, and then you will see the purpose, or function, of that puzzling behavior. All behavior is functional—it functions for the person; it generally results in some positive consequence for her. We’ll come back to this later in more detail, but for now, consider the following rules to help you understand the reasons or goals behind your child’s behavior.
Rule 1. We focus on what children do—their behavior—not on what they “know.” We do not measure our success at teaching in terms of what children end up knowing, but rather in what they do routinely. Why? Because little children cannot tell us what they know, and because what we want to teach are the behaviors that are difficult because of autism—the way they act toward others, communicate with others, play with objects, and participate in daily activities. It is common for us to ask a question like “Does she use a fork?” about a child and to hear a parent answer, “Yes, she knows how to use it. She prefers to use her hands, but if I make her, she will take a bite with a fork.” We’d argue, then, that the correct answer to the question is no, because knowing how to do something is not the same as doing it, and the kinds of skills that young children with autism need to learn are those that are used all the time, independently, without someone having to make them use them (skills like speech, gesture, sharing, play with others, greeting others, sharing emotions, etc.). So when we focus on what children with autism do, we are talking about observable, consistent behavior. And there are always reasons, goals, or functions that lie underneath their behavior, built up from their previous experiences of the physical or social consequences of the behavior.
Rule 2. People do what they do to (a) get something they want, something that pleases them; or (b) avoid something they don’t want, something that is unpleasant to them. It seems too simple to be true, but these are the only two primary reasons, goals, or functions for behavior. Your child behaves the way he does because in the past the behavior has worked for him either to obtain something rewarding, or to escape or avoid an experience he didn’t like or something that prevented your child from achieving his goals.
Activity: Observe Your Child’s Behavior
We suggest you find some time over a couple of days to observe some of your child’s behaviors and consider the goals or functions behind the behaviors. Try to do a few observations in most of the six types of target activities: toy or other object play, social play, meals, caregiving (bathing/dressing/changing/bedtime), book activities, and household chores. This does not mean that you must sit down with a notebook on the sidelines and observe. It means spending a little time paying attention to your child’s behavior and what is happening around your child for 15–20 minutes here and there. Observe and jot down some specific behaviors that your child demonstrates, and also those that you’d like to see more of (e.g., saying “Mama,” giving you a smile, or coming to sit in your lap). Also, note the behaviors you don’t like, the ones that you would rather see decrease.
Remember the assumption that all intentional behavior is functional and goaldirected. Then ask yourself: What is your child’s goal when your child is screaming, looking and smiling at you, or leading you by the hand to the refrigerator? On the next page is a form to use to take some notes so you can develop an eye for looking at your child’s behaviors and thinking about the underlying goals. Try to include both positive behaviors and some negative behaviors. The form includes some examples to get you started. Make extra copies of the form if you need more space.
Summary of Step 1
If you have followed along and carried out the preceding activities, you now know how to “see” the goals that underlie your child’s behaviors. This step begins the process of understanding the function of your child’s behavior, situation by situation. The next steps will address how to “see” the antecedents and consequences that cue and reinforce your child’s behavior in each of these situations, but for now, see if you agree with most of the statements in the following checklist. If so, you are now armed with important skills for understanding the relationships between goals and behavior—knowledge you will use in Step 2. If not, review this section, spend more time observing, and discuss your observations with a supportive other. Stay with this until you can easily see the goal underlying your child’s behavior in a variety of situations.
Activity Checklist: Am I Effectively Observing
My Child’s Behaviors?
____ I have spent some time observing my child and have made a list of my child’s behaviors.
____ I understand the difference between an observable behavior and an interpretation of a state (e.g., whining = behavior, tired = state).
____ All the behaviors on my list are observable behaviors, not states.
____ I understand the goals underlying some of my child’s requesting behavior.
____ I understand the goals underlying some of my child’s undesirable behaviors.
____ I have observed some behaviors in most of the six types of target activities.
Step 2. Choose the Reward: C is for Consequence
Rationale. Consequences are environmental responses to a child’s behavior. They influence whether a child is likely to use the same behavior again to achieve a particular goal. Look at the examples in the form on page 203. For the first example, the child is approaching with upraised arms and face. The child’s goal is a pickup. If the parent responds with a pickup, the child’s goal has been met. A positive consequence (reward, or reinforcement) has resulted. His behavior has been successful at getting him to his goal. The reward (being picked up) that is obtained as a result of the raised arm gesture increases the chance (reinforced) that the child will use this gesture again to be picked up. A learning opportunity has occurred. A desired behavior (B)—a clear gesture, in this case—has been followed by a positive consequence (C). In other words, the behavior has been rewarded, or reinforced, by the pickup, the delivery of the child’s goal. When we use the term learning opportunity in this book, this is what we mean: an occurrence in which you have helped your child produce a desired behavior or skill, and you have made sure that this is followed by a rewarding consequence—usually the goal your child has been seeking.
There are also environmental consequences for unwanted behavior. Rushing to your child and providing comfort and attention when she screams is a typical parental reac
tion. However, if your child’s goal in screaming is to get your attention, then meeting your child’s goal by delivering the positive consequence of getting attention rewards, or reinforces, your child’s screaming. It gives your child the message that screaming is a powerful way to get your attention. Your child will be more likely to scream for your attention next time she wants it, because it has been successful this time. Taking a look at the consequences that follow your child’s behaviors is the second step toward understanding why your child does what she does.
Whether behaviors are ones we appreciate (playing nicely, using language) or ones we don’t appreciate (yelling, whining, repetitive behavior, screaming, running away, throwing things on the floor, hitting), behaviors are maintained by reinforcing consequences. The technical term for a consequence that increases the chances that the behavior will occur again is reinforcement. As in the preceding example of screaming to get attention, sometimes consequences that we think of as “negative” can act as reinforcement. But responding to a screaming child is actually positive reinforcement, if the child has attained her goal.
Now let’s look at another situation. We’ll continue to focus on screaming. In this situation, the parents of 4-year-old Jordan, the screamer just described, are trying to brush her teeth. They come to her with the toothbrush in hand. She screams the minute they touch her and puts up a huge fight when they try to get the toothbrush into her mouth. They cannot brush her teeth, and her parents give up in dismay. What has happened here? Jordan’s goal is to escape from toothbrushing. Her screams and fighting are rewarded by her escape. Remember from our earlier discussion that that there are basically two functions for behavior—achieving something desirable and avoiding something undesirable. This is an example of escape as a reward. The technical name for this is negative reinforcement. The consequence is still reinforcing—Jordan has achieved her goal—but it is through the removal of an aversive stimulus; hence the term “negative.” The earlier example, when Jordan achieves her parents’ attention through screaming, is an example of “positive” reinforcement: She has attained a desired consequence. Both attaining something pleasant and avoiding something unpleasant reinforce, or strengthen, the behavior your child uses to try to achieve her goals. Here’s an important rule to consider when you are observing what consequences follow your child’s behavior:
An Early Start for Your Child with Autism: Using Everyday Activities to Help Kids Connect, Communicate, and Learn Page 23