Rule 3. Learning new behaviors occurs in response to their consequences. You have been using this rule to teach your child in each of the earlier chapters in Part II of this book. Every time you have given your child a choice and he chooses something, your child has told you what his goal is: to have that thing. When you were teaching your child to extend his arms to request being picked up, you first saw that your child had that goal in mind, because he approached you and indicated in some way that that was what he wanted. Then you extended your arms and got your child to extend his arms (the new skill you were teaching). After he raised his arms (the new skill), you picked him up. In doing so, you made sure he attained his goal. Your pickup was (and is) his reward, the reinforcement, for the new behavior, extending his arms. And it is a reinforcement because he wants it—it’s his goal.
Activity: What Behaviors Do You Want to Reward?
Every time you provide a toy, a food, or an activity that your child wants, you are rewarding whatever action your child has done just before you hand it over. If she has cried just before, you are rewarding that. If she has looked at you, you’re rewarding that. If he has not looked at you, you’re rewarding that. If she has grabbed something, you’re rewarding that. You strengthen whatever action, or behavior, you reward. Keeping this idea in mind as you interact with your child will help you be a more effective teacher for your child. Try to make sure that your child experiences positive consequences for desired behaviors. Try to make sure that your child does not receive positive consequences for undesirable behaviors.
Rule 4. Behaviors that are not reinforced will decrease over time. Removing all the positive consequences, or rewards, of a behavior will weaken it over time (reduce its frequency) through a process called extinction. Extinction occurs once all possible benefits of a behavior are eliminated.
What about Molly? Molly’s father decides that he will no longer reward her screaming for her sister’s possessions. He instructs Tina to turn her back on Molly and walk away when Molly screams and tries to grab something. Tina appreciates the change; she walks to her room and closes the door if Molly starts to scream. Over the course of the week, Molly stops heading toward Tina for things, and instead begins to go toward her parents and pull at them to get her what she wants. The parents decide that this is a better form of communication and allow her to lead them to the cabinet or fridge. We see that over the week Molly’s screaming and grabbing at her sister has been extinguished. The behavior is no longer successful at achieving her goal, and so she gives it up and finds a new behavior that is more functional for her, one that is more successful at helping her reach her goal—dragging her parents to what she wants. They follow through by fulfilling her desires, so this new behavior is now being rewarded via the positive consequences that result.
Extinction can also reduce desirable behaviors. Here is a very common example.
Alycia is the mother of Max, who has ASD, and his younger sister, Kerry. Alycia tells Max to ask Kerry for a turn with a toy instead of grabbing it from her. So Max asks Kerry for the flashlight. Kerry ignores his request. So Max is not rewarded for asking. After three tries, Max grabs the toy and takes a turn. His grab is rewarded by getting the toy; his request is ignored. If this continues, he will not continue to request. His requests will quickly be extinguished because they are not successful at helping him attain his goal, and he will continue to grab, because it is successful.
Here is one way this could play out differently:
What about Kerry and Max? Max asks Kerry for the flashlight. Kerry ignores him. Alycia steps in, guides Kerry’s hand and flashlight to Max’s hand, and makes sure he gets the flashlight. Max’s request has been rewarded. But what about Kerry? She also needs to be rewarded for giving it to him. Fortunately, Alycia has another flashlight right there and offers it to Kerry right away. Kerry takes it and is happy. So Kerry has been rewarded for giving the flashlight in response to Max’s open hand and request. Each child has been rewarded for a mature behavior.
Realistically, it isn’t always possible to have another item available (you don’t necessarily know in advance that a struggle will develop over a flashlight, a fork, a plate, or a toy), and asking the older sibling to help by giving up the flashlight or other object can lead to a lot of resentment in the older sibling. It is helpful to get “buy-in” from other siblings at home to get their cooperation. Explain what you are doing to help their sibling with ASD learn to communicate and why it is important. That way, if they do give up an object, they feel proud (a reward) and are praised by you (another reward). Alycia could also try giving a different, appealing toy to Kerry (or Max), along with lots of verbal praise and hugs when the requested object is handed over (a positive consequence).
Rule 5. There is one other way that consequences change behavior over time: When a consequence (usually a negative consequence) follows a behavior and results in a decrease in frequency of the behavior, it is called punishment. Punishment in this case doesn’t mean sitting your child in the corner or something similar. It simply refers to a consequence that is unwanted by the child (or adult) and therefore leads to a reduction of the behavior that has directly preceded the punishment.
What about Kerry and Max? Let’s imagine that after asking nicely to share the toy and being ignored, Max grabs for the toy. Kerry quickly leaves the room with the toy, not allowing Max to have it. Max begins crying and goes to Alycia, who says, “That’s what happens when you grab.” Max is less likely to grab next time, because his grabbing has resulted in an unpleasant, or negative, consequence—he has lost access to the toy. In technical language, his behavior has been punished.
Punishment and extinction both result in decreases of behavior over time. Any unwanted consequence is technically punishment. For a child, being told “no” or “not now,” having a parent put away an object that the child wants, or having a sibling take something away or push her down when she approaches to play can all be punishing consequences—unwanted consequences that follow an intentional behavior.
Activity: Continue to Observe Your Child’s Behavior
For this exercise, take a day or two to find some observation times to pay attention to the consequences of your child’s behaviors, considered in terms of your child’s goals. Think about whether the consequence of the behavior met your child’s goals, and thus was a reinforcer (R); whether it provided an unwanted consequence/punishment (P); or whether it had no consequence at all related to the goal, and thus resulted in extinction (EX). In the form on the facing page, be sure to include some examples of both socially desirable behaviors that your child uses (eye contact, gestures, sounds, or words) and socially undesirable behaviors (e.g., screaming and throwing). For all of these, remember that a reinforcer is the achievement of the child’s goals. Sometimes even a behavior that on the surface seems like a negative response to the child’s behavior (correction, scolding, etc.) can be a reinforcer if it helps the child achieve her goal (e.g., an older sibling’s getting upset might serve as a reinforcer for a younger child who enjoys seeing the sibling upset). Make extra copies of the form if you need more space.
Summary of Step 2
If you have followed along and carried out the preceding activities, you now know how to “see” the consequences that follow and reinforce, punish, or extinguish your child’s behaviors. This step continues the process of understanding the function of your child’s behavior, situation by situation. The next step will address how to “see” the antecedents that cue your child’s behavior in each of these situations, but for now, see if you agree with most of the statements in the following checklist. If so, you are now armed with important skills for understanding the relationships between goals and behavior—knowledge you will use in Step 3. If not, review this section, spend more time observing, and discuss your observations with a supportive other. Stay with this until you can easily see the consequences and the type of consequence underlying your child’s behaviors in a variety of situations
.
Activity Checklist: Am I Identifying Consequences
of My Child’s Behaviors?
____ I have spent some time observing my child and have made a list of some of my child’s behaviors.
____ All the behaviors on my list are observable behaviors, not states.
____ I have listed the goals and consequences that follow some of my child’s desirable behaviors.
____ I have listed the goals and consequences that follow some of my child’s undesirable behaviors.
____ I have been able to classify most of the consequences as reinforcing, extinguishing, or punishing.
____ I have observed some behaviors, goals, and consequences in most of the six types of target activities.
Step 3. Identify What Came First, Right Before
the Behavior Occurred: A Is for Antecedent
Rationale. We’ve been talking about two important principles for learning: (1) The function of a behavior is to gain or avoid certain experiences; and (2) the consequences that follow the behavior strengthen or weaken its use in that situation in the future. Now it is time for the third key principle for understanding and changing behavior: (3) The event that occurs right before the behavior happens is the trigger or cue for the behavior to happen—the antecedent, or stimulus, that cues the behavior.
Rule 6. Behaviors occur in response to a stimulus, also called an antecedent event. Antecedents are often observable in your child’s environment. Your child sees something he wants (lollipop) or doesn’t want (medicine container). He hears a noise (the garage door opening) that means Dad is home. He sees a dog he is afraid of. He walks into Grandma’s kitchen and sees the shelf where Grandma always keeps the chips. Antecedents can also be felt: He is hungry. He is tired.
Although we often focus a lot of attention on the consequences of a behavior, we need to focus just as much attention on the antecedents. If we are thinking about a behavior we want a child to develop, we have to think about what environmental event—what stimulus—should cue that new behavior. Then we have to make sure our teaching approach is focused on linking the new behavior to the appropriate cue, or antecedent. That way, we can use the antecedents in various situations to cue the behavior we want to see. We can also remove antecedents to help reduce the chances that an unwanted behavior will occur.
What antecedents do we target? It’s easy to focus on verbal instructions. We want children to behave as we tell them to. However, for most of this text, we have been helping you use nonverbal—or gestural—cues as antecedents as well. You have been demonstrating the use of toys (A) so your child would imitate (B), which resulted in an interesting effect (C). You have been pointing (A) so your child would look at and retrieve something (B) that she wanted or liked (C). You have started a chase game and then stopped (A), so your child would chase you (B) and end up getting caught and thrown up in the air (C). You have started a song your child enjoys and done a finger movement (A1), and a pause (A2) your child imitated (B), and then you continued the song (C). In all these examples, you have used gestures—nonverbal communications—as the antecedents. You are probably quite skilled at this by this point in the book.
Note another important point: Many behaviors we want children to learn are independent skills—skills that other children use without needing an instruction or cue from another. Playing independently, going to the toilet when the need arises, greeting a parent who returns from work, giving a toy to a sister who asks to share—these are a few of many examples in which we expect young children to respond in certain ways without a parental instruction. If you look carefully at each of these complex independent skills, you will see the function, and the reinforcers, in them as well. Children play independently because they enjoy the activity (positive reinforcement). Children use a toilet independently because using the toilet avoids the inconvenient and uncomfortable situation caused by soiling their clothes (negative reinforcement), and also because of the social praise young children receive when they master this complex task (positive reinforcement). Greeting a beloved parent results in an affectionate exchange (a positive reward). Sharing toys avoids conflict (negative reinforcement) and continues pleasant social exchanges (positive reinforcement). These are very well-learned chains of behaviors that children can carry out without instruction, but when they were first learned, there were clear antecedents and direct rewards for each of them. Children with ASD can also learn these complex chains and carry them out independently, as long as there are clear antecedents and reinforcing consequences for them. You are teaching these with every chapter in Part II of this book.
What if you want to teach a new skill but are unsure of the antecedent—the cue—you should use? A good way to figure out what antecedent to use to cue a behavior is to think about what stimulus cues this behavior for most other children your child’s age. Whenever possible, we want to use the same antecedents for children with autism that other children use. If you are not sure, observe children at the park, at school, in church, at the grocery store, and in other settings. Or ask friends or family members what their children respond to. Using the same antecedents that other parents use with their children means your child will be able to understand cues that many different people might use. This is why we have been suggesting that you use very typical (though simplified) language and gestures in working with your child. The words and gestures you are using, and the toys, songs, games, and daily routines you have been teaching, are very likely those that other members of your family and your network of friends use as well. Teaching your child these typical antecedents and responses in everyday situations, and with the household objects that occur around you, makes it much easier for your child to learn the antecedent—behavior chains that others will use as well. Your child is learning what he needs to respond to many people, not just a few, and in many situations, not just the “teaching” environment.
What about Max and Kerry? The stimulus, or antecedent, for Max’s grabbing was the sight of Kerry playing fun games with the flashlight. What is the typical behavior that preschoolers use in response to the antecedent event of seeing another child with a desired toy? Yes, grabbing does occur, but ideally, they ask for a turn. So the mom, Alycia, is correct to prompt Max to ask Kerry for a turn with the flashlight. The typical reward for making the request is getting a turn with the toy.
The goal here is to teach Max that when he sees Kerry with another toy (A—the antecedent), he should request a turn (B—the behavior), and hopefully be rewarded with a turn (C—consequence). Consider the behaviors and their antecedents in the chart on the facing page. Fill in some you have observed for your own child. Make extra copies of the form if you need more space.
Summary of Step 3
If you have followed along and carried out the preceding activities, you now know how to “see” the antecedents that cue your child’s behaviors in many situations. This step continues the process of understanding the ABC’s of a variety of your child’s behaviors, situation by situation. The next steps will address how to put together all that you have learned to build or change behaviors and skills your child uses to meet her goals. See if you agree with most of the statements in the following checklist. If so, you are now armed with important skills for understanding the relationships between antecedents and behavior—knowledge you will use in Step 4. If not, review this section, spend more time observing, and discuss your observations with a supportive other. Stay with this until you can easily see the antecedents preceding your child’s behavior in a variety of situations.
Activity Checklist: Am I Identifying Antecedents
of My Child’s Behaviors?
____ I have spent some time observing my child and have made a list of my child’s behaviors.
____ All the behaviors on my list are observable behaviors, not states.
____ I understand the antecedents, goals, and consequences underlying some of my child’s desirable behaviors.
____ I understand the antecedents
, goals, and consequences underlying some of my child’s undesirable behaviors.
____ I have observed some behaviors and their antecedents in most of the six types of target activities.
Step 4. Put the ABC’s of Learning Together
Rationale. We have now discussed the basic ABC principles of learning, and if you have tried the preceding exercises, you’ve thought through your child’s behavior the same way behavior analysts do. Step 4 is to put the ABC sequence together. Each child has unique ways of behaving, responding, and interacting with others. By observing your child’s behaviors, and the antecedents and consequences of those behaviors, you learn about your child’s goals and the functions of his behaviors—why he acts the way he does. Your child’s behaviors communicate what consequences or outcomes he has previously experienced, and what cues or antecedents lead to his behaviors. Unwanted behaviors like tantrums and aggression are part of all children’s repertoires of behavior, and they become habitual if these behaviors have repeatedly led to goal achievement—to positive consequences. These are not “naughty” behaviors; they are functional behaviors for a child who uses them. They are the child’s best efforts to attain his goals. Desirable behaviors, like giving a hug or kiss, occur for the same reason: They result in positive consequences for a child. All of your child’s intentional behaviors follow the same rules. They are the most effective means your child has found for achieving his goal in a situation signaled by an environmental cue. Desirable or undesirable, they are functional—they work.
An Early Start for Your Child with Autism: Using Everyday Activities to Help Kids Connect, Communicate, and Learn Page 24