by Will Durant
conservative role of, 290
in England, 684, 735–36, 762
in France, 142, 900–2
in Germany, 499, 504–5
in Holland, 646–47
Index of, 247, 285, 316, 358
in Ireland, 283, 760–62
in Italy, 225
Jansenism and, see Jansenists;
Jesuits and, see Jesuits;
Johnson and, 834
nationalism and, 316
in Poland, 472, 475, 480–81
popular superstitions and, 316
in Portugal, 260, 267–68, 317
Rousseau and, 175, 185
in Russia, 452
in Scotland, 763
in Spain, 281, 283–86, 290
see also Inquisition;
papacy
Catholic relief laws in England, 735–36, 762
Cattaro, 229
Catullus, Caius Valerius (84?–54? B.C.), 21
Caucasus, 422
“Causes of Barometric Fluctuations, The” (Goethe), 615
Cavalli, Pietro Francesco (1602–76), 232
Cave, Edward (1691–1754), 819–20, 822
Cavendish, Lord, 726
Cavendish, Henry (1731–1810), 932
Caylus, Anne-Claude-Philippe de Tubières, Comte d (1692–1765), 110, 120, 218, 467, 749
Ceán-Bermúdez, Juan Augustín (1749–1829), 298
Cecchina, La (Piccini), 333
celibacy, Rousseau’s critique of, 168–69
censorship: in Austria, 343, 348, 358
Goethe’s support for, 623
in Italy, 220, 225
in Portugal, 268
in Spain, 285
Cephalonia, 229
Cervantes Saavedra, Miguel de (1547–1616), 788
Chait Singh, Rajah of Benares (r. 1773–80), 717
Chamberlaine, Frances, see Sheridan, Frances
Chambers, Sir William (1726–96), 747–48
Chamfort, Sébastien-Roch-Nicolas de (1741–94), 898, 914, 915–16, 930–31, 939
Chamier, Anthony (1725–80), 827
Champagne, 928
Champ de Mars, 961
Chandernagore, 58
Chapel of the Malta Order, 468
Chapuis, M. (fl. 1755), 31
Chardin, Jean-Baptiste-Siméon (1699–1779), 23, 112–13, 117, 120, 466
charity, 905
Charles (Charles Augustus Christian), Duke of Zweibrücken, 354, 362
Charles I, King of England, Scotland, and Ireland (r. 1625–49), 90, 699, 705, 709, 711
Louis XVI on, 856
Charles II, King of England, Scotland, and Ireland (r. 1660–85), 462
Charles II, King of Spain (r. 1665–1700), 273
Charles III (Don Carlos of Bourbon), King of Spain (r. 1759–88), Duke of Parma and Piacenza (r. 1731–34), King of Naples and Sicily as Charles IV (r. 1731–34), 249–50, 281–90
ACQUIRES PARMA, THEN NAPLES, 228, 278
AS KING OF NAPLES, 249–50, 254, 258, 315
AS KING OF SPAIN, 281–90, 291, 298, 377, 848
accession of, 258, 281, 315
appearance and character of, 281, 290, 301
death of, 290, 302
economic reforms of, 76, 286–89
foreign policy of, 89, 290
Goya and, 301, 306
Inquisition and, 285–86
Jesuits expelled by, 281, 283–85
Jews and, 285, 631
Madrid improved by, 282, 289–90
Naples and, 315
papacy and, 283, 318
political reforms of, 281–83
schools established by, 293
Tiepolo and, 239, 299
Charles IV, King of Naples and Sicily, see Charles III, King of Spain
Charles IV, King of Spain (r. 1788–1808), 292, 302, 304, 306
Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor (r. 1519–56), and King of Spain (as Charles I), 297
Charles VI, Holy Roman Emperor (r. 1711–40), 235, 278
Charles VIII, King of France (r. 1483–98), 21
Charles IX (Chénier), 920
Charles X (Charles-Philippe, Comte d’Artois), King of France (b. 1757, r. 1824–30), 111, 845
democratic attitudes of, 905
as emigré, 963
Charles XII, King of Sweden (r. 1697–1718), 433, 821
defeat at Poltawa (1709), 476
Poland and, 475
Charles XII (Voltaire), 137
Charles, Jacques-Alexandre (1746–1823), 932
Charles Alexander of Lorraine, see Charles of Lorraine
Charles Augustus, Duke of Saxe-Weimar, see Karl August
Charles Emmanuel I, King of Sardinia (r. 1730–1773), 226, 342, 530
Charles Martel (668?–741), Frankish ruler, 808
Charles of Lorraine, Prince (1712–80), 47, 51–52, 383–84
Charles Theodor, Elector, see Karl Theodor
Charlotte Sophia (1744–1818), Queen of George III of England, 384, 698, 795
Charrière, Isabella de (“Zélide”), nee Isabella van Tuyll (1740–1805), 647–48
Charrière, Saint-Hyacinthe de, 647
Chartres, Duc de (in 1752–85), see Orléans, Louis-Philippe-Joseph, Duc d’
Chastellux, Marquis François-Jean de (1734–88), 125–27, 878
Chastity Commissioners, Austrian, 344
Chateaubriand, François-René de (1768–1848), 889–90
Châteauroux, Marie-Anne de Nesle de La Tournelle, Duchesse de (1714–44), 102
Chatham, Lady, nee Grenville, 698
Chatham, Lord, see Pitt, William, the Elder
Châtillon, Duchesse de (fl. 1764), 125
Chatterton, Thomas (1752–70), 809–10
Chaulnes, Marie-Joseph d’Albert d’Ailly, Duc de (1741–93), 921
Chauvelin, Marquis Bernard-Louis de (1716–1773), 144
Chelsea, potteries at, 748
Chénier, Marie-Joseph (1764–1811), 244, 920
Chenonceaux, Madame de, nee Dupin (fl. 1762), 178
Cheremetyev, Count Boris Petrovich (1652–1719), 428
Cheremetyev, Count Peter, 422–23
Cherubini, Salvatore (1760–1842), 312, 380
Chesmé, battle of (1770), 458
Chesterfield, Philip Dormer Stanhope, 4th Earl of (1694–1773), 690, 786, 789
on Frederick II’s court, 499
Johnson and, 821, 823
Chiari, Abate Pietro (1720–88), 243
Child, Sir Josiah (1630–99), 72
child labor, 671, 678, 682
child rearing: in Egypt, 416
Rousseau’s theories on, 97, 888
China, Jesuits in, 225, 318
“Chinese Letters” (Goldsmith), 814
Chioggia, 229
Chios, battle of (1770), 458
Chippendale, Thomas (1718–79), 748
Chippendale furniture, 523
Chiswick, Rousseau’s stay in, 210–11
Chiusano, Conte Caissotti di (fl. 1770), 316
chivalry in France, 98
Choderlos de Laclos, see Lacios
Chodowiecki, Daniel Nicholas (1726–1801), 523–24
Choglokov, Russian officer (1768), 443–44
Choglokova, Maria (fl. 1750), 436
Choiseul, César de, see Praslin, Duc de
Choiseul, Duc Étienne-François de (1719–85), 57, 67, 87, 92, 137, 447, 846, 882
achievements of, 88–89
art collection of, 466
dismissal of, 85, 94
Du Barry and, 88
early life of, 88,
exile of, 89,
failures of, 89
liberal tendencies of, 931
peace negotiations in Seven Years’ War, 60, 62
Polish partition and, 482
reforms of, 142, 144
ultimatum to papacy, 318
Voltaire and, 132
Choiseul, Louise-Honorine Crozat, Duchesse de (1735–1801), 98, 118, 125, 447, 907
Cholmondeley, L
ord, 726
Chotek, Johann Rudolf (1749–1824), 344–45
“Christ Is Being Born” (Karpiński), 486
Christian VI, King of Denmark (r. 1730–46), 652
Christian VII, King of Denmark (r. 1766–1808), 652–63
correspondence with Voltaire, 139
Christian August, Prince of Anhalt-Zerbst (d. 1746), 438
Christian Friedrich Karl Alexander, Margrave of Ansbach and Bayreuth (r. 1757–91), 103, 354
Christianity: Gibbon’s critique of, 801–2
Goethe’s views on, 619–20
Herder’s views on, 579
Lessing’s views on, 515–16
Reimarus’s views on, 513–14
Schiller’s views on, 596
Voltaire’s views on, see Voltaire, RELIGION AND
Christina, Queen of Sweden (r. 1632–54), 256
Chubb, Thomas (1679–1747), 734
Chubin, Russian sculptor, 467
Church of the Virgin del Pilar, 297
church music: in Germany, 525
in Italy, 332
Church Synod, Russian, 440
Churchill, Charles (1731–64), 699, 702, 808–9
Cibber, Colley (1671–1757), 742
Cibber, Susannah Maria, nee Arne (1714–66), 740
Cicero, Marcus Tullius (106–43 B.C.), 294, 842
Cimarosa, Domenico (1749–1801), 312, 334–35, 466
Citizen of the World, The (Goldsmith), 814
Clairon, Mlle. (Claire-Josèphe Léris de La Tude; 1723–1803), 102–4, 136, 910, 964
Clarendon, Edward Hyde, 1st Earl of (1609–74), 794, 856
Clarendon Press, 786
Clarissa (Richardson), 167, 169–70, 509, 563
classicism, 315
in architecture, 110, 747
Italy and, 325–31
in literature, 588, 593, 627
in painting, 248–49, 329–30, 524, 910, 911–13
in sculpture, 329, 510,
in social values, 118
Claudius, Matthias (1740–1815), 519
Clavigo y Fajardo, José (1726–1806), 921
Clement XI (Giovanni Francesco Albani), Pope (r. 1700–21), 245, 277, 320
Clement XII (Lorenzo Corsini), Pope (r. 1730–1740), 220, 246–47, 938
Clement XIII (Carlo della Torre Rezzonico), Pope (r. 1758–69), 330, 337
bull against Parma; death of, 317
Jesuits and, 264, 266, 284, 317
Clement XIV (Lorenzo Ganganelli), Pope (r. 1769–74), 911
abolishes Jesuit order (1773), 318, 351, 452
conflicts with Catholic monarchs, 318
election of, 317
Portugal and, 268
Clément, Abbé (fl. 1768), 280
Clementi, Muzio (1752–1832), 332–33
Clemenza di Tito, La (Mozart), 407
Cleopatra (Cimarosa), 334
Clerici, Felice (1719–74), 226
Clerici, Palazzo, 237
Clerici, Rho (fl. 1755), 226
Clerks of the Holy Cross and Passion of Our Lord, 226
Clermont, Abbé Comte de (d. 1771), 53
Cleves, 48
Clive, Kitty, nee Catherine Raftor (1711–85), 740
Clive, Robert (1725–74), 85, 715–16
clocks, French, 106
Clodion (Claude Michel; 1738–1814), 106, 911
clothing: changing styles in, 889
in France, 905
in Spain, 282
“Club, the ,” 817, 827, 840
Club Breton, 939
Clugny de Nuis (d. 1776), 865
Clyde River, 762
coal industry: in England, 671, 675
in France, 932
Cobenzl, Count Johann Ludwig Joseph von (1753–1809), 459
Cocceji, Baron Samuel von (1679–1755), 500
Cochin, Charles-Nicolas (1715–90), 116*, 120
Code de la Nature (Morelly), 80–82
Code Napoléon (1807), 147
coffeehouses, 729
Coimbra, bishop of (fl. 1768), 271
Colbert, Jean-Baptiste (1619–83), 72, 344, 934
Coleridge, Samuel Taylor (1772–1834), 551, 658
College of Pharmacy, Moscow, 453
Collegium Fredericianum, at Königsberg, 531
Collegium Nobilium, Polish, 475
Collier, Jeremy (1650–1726), 163
Collini, secretary to Voltaire, 150
Collins, Anthony (1676–1729), deist, 507, 734
Collins, William (1721–59), poet, 518, 887
Colloredo, Hieronymus von Paula, Count von (ft. 1782), Archbishop of Salzburg, 387–89, 393–95, 504–5
Collot, Marie-Anne (fl. 1768), 467
Colman, George (1732–94), 742, 815
Cologne, 341, 503–5
color, Goethe’s work on, 615–16
Columbine (comic character), 232
Comedia nueva (Moratín), 296
Comédie-Française, 101–2, 922
commedia dell’ arte, 240–41, 923
Commentaire sur le livre des delits et des peines (Voltaire), 145
Commentaries on Arabic Poetry (Jones), 412
Commentaries on the Laws of England (Blackstone), 736
Commons, House of, see House of Commons
Commune of Paris in French Revolution, 926
communist theories: in France, 80–84, 262, 937–38
of Paraguayan Jesuits, 80, 83, 262
Compagnie des Indes (French East India Company), 630
Comprehensive Study of Tactics (Guibert), 128
Compte rendu au Roi (Necker’s financial account), 870
Comte, Auguste (1798–1857), 254
concerto grosso, 222, 528
Concerts Spirituels, 100
Condé, Louis-Joseph de Bourbon, Prince de (1736–1818), 385, 850
Condillac, Étienne Bonnot de (1715–80), 14, 126, 220, 294, 892, 901
Condorcet, Antoine-Nicolas Caritat, Marquis de (1743–94), 894–97, 939, 955
on d’Alembert, 892
in antislavery movement, 894, 935
and Julie de Lespinasse, 126, 131, 895
optimism of, 896–97, 917
in Revolution, 894–95, 897, 940
in States-General, 957
on Voltaire’s death, 879
as Voltaire editor and biographer, 895, 925
Condorcet, Sophie de Grouchy, Marquise de (1764–1822), 907
Conegliano, Emmanuele, see Ponte, Lorenzo da
Confederation of Bar, 481–83
Confederation of Targowica, 488–90
Confessions (Rousseau), 18, 214, 336, 887
completion of, 882
debate over truthfulness of, 5*, on Diderot, 15
on Discours sur les arts et les sciences, 24
influence of, 888
on iniquity of powerful, 17
on love of nature, 11
on masochistic feelings, 6
publication of, 171
Rousseau’s readings from, 883
Rousseau starts writing, 193
on theft of ribbons, 9
on Thérèse Levasseur, 17–18
uniqueness of, 4
on Voltaire’s poetry, 154
on Mme. de Warens, 12–13
on women, 8
on writing of La Nouvelle Heloïse, 155
Confucius (551–479 B.C.), 507
Congiura dei Pazzi, La (Alfieri), 338
Congregation of the Most Holy Redeemer, 225
Congress of Basel (1795), 547
Congress of Utrecht (1713), 547
conscription, military, 62
conseils supérieurs, 94
Consejo de Castilla, 277, 282, 286
Conservatorio di San Onofrio, 334
Conservatorio di Santa Maria di Loreto, 334
Considerations of a Good Citizen (Poniatowski), 480
Considérations sur le gouvernement de la Pologne (Rousseau), 884–85
Considérations sur les causes de la grandeur de
s Romains et de leur décadence (Montesquieu), see Greatness and Decadence of the Romans
Constable, John (1776–1837), 332
Constant, Benjamin (1767–1830), 648
Constantine I, Emperor of Rome (r. 306–337), 803
Constantine Pavlovich, Grand Duke (1779–1831), 458
Constantinople, 413–14
Constituent Assembly (France, 1789–91), see National Assembly
constitutions: American, see United States Constitution; Polish (1791), 487
Contades, Maréchal Due Louis-Georges de (1704–95), 53, 55
Contemporaines, Les (Restif de La Bretonne), 919
Contes moraux (Marmontel), 102, 105
Conti, Louis-François de Bourbon, Prince de (1717–76), 161, 208, 850, 882, 923
Contrat social, see Social Contract, The
Convention, National (France), see National Convention
convents, see nunneries
Conversations with Goethe (Eckermann), 555–56, 559, 581, 600, 603, 607, 609, 612, 618, 620, 622, 625–26
Conway, Lord George, 209, 753
Conway, Henry Seymour (1721–95), 208, 793
Cook, Capt. James (1728–79), 669
Copenhagen, Bank of, 652
Corday, Charlotte (1768–93), 137
Corelli, Arcangelo (1653–1713), 254
Corfu, 229
Corneille, Marie (fl. 1770), 136–37, 150
Corneille, Pierre (1606–84), 104, 136–37, 511, 889
Cornwallis, Charles, 1st Marquis Cornwallis (1738–1805), 714, 729, 761, 871
Corrado, painter, 298
Correggio (Antonio Allegri; 1494–1534), 248
Correspondance littéraire, 34–35, 95, 201, 893
Corsica, 207, 284, 313, 885
early history of, 312
French occupation of (1739–48), 205, 312
French Revolution and, 313
under Paoli, 313, 782–83
re-occupation by French, (1769), 313
Rousseau’s constitution for, 178, 202
sold to French by Genoa, 313
Cortona, Pietro da (1596–1669), 115
corvée, 80, 928, 936
Assembly of Notables and, 944
Turgot ends, 863
Cosimo II de’ Medici, Grand Duke of Tuscany (r. 1600–20), 228
Cosimo III de’ Medici, Grand Duke of Tuscany (r. 1670–1723), 227–28
cosmetics, 99
Cossacks, 451, 455, 633–34
Costa, Bartolomeu da (fl. 1775), 270
Costillares, bullfighter, 291
cotton industry, 672–73
Council of Castille, 277, 282, 286
Council of General Administration, Austrian Netherlands, 362
Council of State, French, 90–91, 94
Council of Ten, Venetian, 229, 255
Council of Trent, 361
Council of Twenty-five, Genevan, 190, 197–99
Cour Plénière, 947–48
Courier de Provence, 915
Cour des Aides, French, 92
Cours de philosophie positive (Comte), 254