by Will Durant
aids Mozart, 386–87
Parini aided by, 335–36
First Estate: role in States-General, 956–61
structure of, 949–50
Fischer von Erlach, Johann Bernhard (1656–1723), 345, 426
Fischerström, Johan (1735–96), 660
Fisher, William, 773
Fishers, The (Ewald), 652
Fitzherbert, Alleyn, Baron St. Helens (1758–1839), 459
Fitzherbert, Maria Ann, nee Smythe (1756–1871), 721
Flachsland, Caroline, see Herder, Caroline
Flanders, 342
Flaubert, Gustave (1821–80), 104
Flaxman, John (1755–1826), 750
Fleury, André Hercule de, Cardinal (1653–1743), 40
Fleury, Maître Omer Joly de, see Joly de Fleury, Omer
Flood, Henry (1732–91), 761
Florence: Accademia della Crusca of, 824
Freemasons in, 220
French Revolutionary Army in (1799), 340
Goethe in, 587, 589
under Grand Duke Leopold, 310
history and achievements, 227–28
library in, 219
theaters in, 220
university in, 219
Florida, 62, 709, 714
Floridablanca, José Moñina, Conde de (1728–1808), 286, 287, 302
flying shuttle, 673
Fontaine, Priory of, 928
Fontainebleau, Peace of (1762), 62
Fontenailles, Marquise de, 68
Fontenelle, Bernard Le Bovier de (1657–1757), 15, 105, 119–20, 139, 427, 894, 903
Fonthill Abbey, 809
Foote, Samuel (1720–77), 740
Forcalquier, Mme. de, 118
Force, La, prison of, 962
Fordyce, Lord, 525
Formey, Jean-Louis-Samuel (1711–97), 23
Formont, Jean-Baptiste-Nicolas de (d. 1758?), 122
Forth River, 762
Four Ages of Man (González), 295
“Four Seasons” (Naruszewicz), 485
Fourier, François-Marie-Charles (1772–1837), 81, 891
Fourmantelle, Catherine (fl. 1759), 787
Fox, Charles James (1749–1806), 133, 683, 693–694, 701, 724, 750, 777, 833
and American colonies, 711, 713–14
appearance and habits of, 694
on Burke, 692
in coalition ministry, 715, 718
death of, 726
duels with Adams, 694, 732
early life of, 693
and French Revolution, 722, 724, 726
in Hastings trial, 696, 719–20
and India bills, 718–19
liberal views of, 694
marries Mrs. Armstead, 726
in Ministry of All the Talents, 726
opposes slave trade, 726, 732–33
in Rockingham ministry, 761
Fox, George (1624–91), 732
Fox, Henry, 1st Baron Holland (1705–74), 364, 693
Frage, ob die Welt veralte, Die (Kant), 532–33
Fragment on Government (Bentham), 738
Fragonard, Jean-Honoré (1732–1806), 97, 112, 115–18, 911
France, 67–408, 845–963
agriculture in, 859, 861, 927–31
aid to American Revolution, 354, 711, 842, 867–72
American empire of, see French America; antireligious feeling in, 64, 183
architecture in, 109–11
army in, 686
art in, 106–18, 910–14
Austria and, 488, 846
Austrian Netherlands and, 45
ballet in, 100
banking in, 861
book publishing in, 71
Breteuil’s ministry (1789), 961–63
cafés in, 99
capital punishment in, 146
clergy and religion in, 67, 92, 142, 857, 900–2, 931, 949–50, 956–61
clothing and grooming in, 99, 889, 905
commerce and trade in, 70–77, 80, 709, 859–60, 872, 931–35
communist theories in, 80–84
Corsica and, 205, 312–13
crime in, 903
cuisine in, 99
drought of 1788 in, 949
economic inequality in, 936–37
education in, 3, 863, 895, 900, 914
England and, 39, 89, 669, 713, 761
on eve of Revolution, 954–56
famine in, 954–55
feudalism in, 849, 861–63, 927–29, 931, 937, 954
financial problems of, 90, 859–61
First Coalition against, 591
Freemasons in, 94, 938–39
free trade and, 935
guilds in, 72, 862, 932
Holland and, 648–49
in Holy Roman Empire, 341
home furnishings in, 106–7
India and 58–59, 715
Industrial Revolution in, 931–34
internal tolls in, 935
Italy and, 217
Jansenists in, 85, 91, 193, 246
Jews in, 91, 630, 642
law in, 849, 947–48
libraries in, 914
literature in, 889, 914–19
marriage in, 97
morality and grace in, 97–100, 902–5
music in, 100–1, 368, 370–73, 909–10, 915
Napoleonic, see Napoleon I;
Napoleonic Wars, 627, 726, 872
navy of, 40, 57
opera in, 26
oratory in, 99
palaces in, 850
papacy and, 317–18
parlements in, see parlements and Paris, Parlement of; pauperism in, 930–31
periodicals and pamphlets in, 94, 915
Poland and, 476, 482
political clubs in, 939
population of, 927
prostitution in, 98, 903
Protestants in, 91, 857, 901–2, 950
Prussia and, 488
ratio of priests to lay population, 224
recognizes United States, 713
religious toleration in, 144
riots in, 98, 934, 954–55, 956, 961
Romantic movement in, 170
Russia and, 430, 432, 457–58
salons in, 118–31, 906–8
Senegal given to, 714
slave trade and, 58, 935
social classes in, 67–82, 84–96, 848–50, 858–59, 861, 863–64, 872, 898–99, 901–4, 914, 927–31, 934–37, 944–48, 954–61
Spain and, 277–78, 280, 293, 296, 306–7
tariff policy of, 935
taxation in, 69, 92, 931, 935–36, 944, 946, 959
theater in, 101–6, 920–26
transportation in, 70
women in, 906–8
FOREIGN ALLIANCES AND AGREEMENTS: alliances against England, 870–71
alliance with the United States (1778), 870
First Treaty of Versailles (1756), 42
Mme. de Pompadour and, 67
in Quadruple Alliance (1718), 278
Second Treaty of Versailles (1757), 45
subsidies to foreign countries, 61, 89
GOVERNMENT AND POLITICS IN: administrative jurisdictions, 849
Assembly of Notables (1787), 75, 944–45
authority of royal power, 849–50 (see also Louis XV; Louis XVI; Marie-Antoinette)
Bourbon restoration, 890
Breteuil ministry, 961–63
Brienne ministry, 945–48
Calonne ministry, 943–45
chaos in governmental operations, 848–50
expenses of court, 84, 850
Maurepas ministry, 85, 97, 104
Necker ministries, see Necker, Jacques; Nuis ministry (1776), 865
parlements and, see parlements and Paris, Parlement of; States-General and, see States-General, French; Turgot ministry, 858–65
IN SEVEN YEARS’ WAR, 45–46, 48–64
passim
diplomacy leading to war, 38–44
European land operations, 48, 49–50, 51, 53–55
&nb
sp; passim, 60
losses in America and India, 45, 57–59, 62–63, 68, 709
naval war with England, 42–43, 56, 57–59
peace negotiations, 60–62
France, Anatole (1844–1924), 880
France libre, La (Desmoulins) , 915
Francueil, Dupin de, see Dupin de Francueil, Claude
Franche-Comté, 928
franchise: in England, 685
in Switzerland, 643–644
Francis I (Francis of Lorraine), Holy Roman Emperor (r. 1745–65), 46, 313, 346, 383
Francis II, Holy Roman Emperor (r. 1792–1806), Emperor of Austria as Francis I (r. 1804–35), 378, 379
Francis, Sir Philip (1740–1818), 705–6, 717–19, 723
Franciscans, 224, 902
Franck, Johann Matthais (fl. 1738), 373–74
Frank, Jacob (Jankiew Leibowicz; 1726–91), 636
Frankfurt: fairs in, 556
Jews in, 634, 642
population of, 556
social classes in, 556
Frankfurter gelehrte Anzeigen, 506, 521
Frankl, August (1810–94), 613
Franklin, Benjamin (1706–90), 120, 201, 802, 856
on corruption in English Parliament, 733
death of, 872
in England, 868
in France, 868–72
as Freemason, 939
French America and, 57
French Enlightenment and, 867
French Revolution and, 84
influence of philosophes on, 899
Turgot and, 865
Voltaire and, 875
Franks, 312
Franquet, M. (d. 1756), 920
Franyó, Remigius, 363
Frederick I, King of Sweden (r. 1720–51), 654
Frederick I, Barbarossa, Holy Roman Emperor (r. 1152–90), 239
Frederick II the Great, King of Prussia (r. (1740–86), 42–57, 59–64, 107, 136, 142–43, 249, 337, 433, 495–502, 528–30, 657, 782, 880, 885, 897
abilities of 43, 46, 529–30, 849
achievements of, 502
d’Alembert and, 124, 892
appearance and habits of, 495, 499–500
attitude toward religion, 498–99
attitude toward royalty, 342, 502, 530
bribes Bestuzhev, 432
Catherine II and, 434, 442, 457–58, 462, 484,
condemns Goethe’s Götz von Berlichingen, 561
curbs freedom of press, 530
death of, 461, 530
death of sister, 47, 54
deism of, 498–99, 528
economic policies of, 500–1
in first partition of Poland, 350
Freemasons and, 507, 938
George III and, 60
Grimm’s Correspondance littéraire and, 34–35
Jesuits and, 319
Jewish bankers aid, 53
on John V of Portugal, 260
Joseph II and, 349, 353–54, 361–62
on Kaunitz, 40
legal reforms of, 500
literary works of, 44, 49, 54, 528–29
Louis XV and, 40
on Louis XVI, 857
love for music, 496, 526
on Maria Theresa, 38–39, 342, 344, 350, 352, 529–30
militarism of, 500, 529
moral probity of, 355
Napoleon on, 530
national pride in, 506
parsimony of, 499–500
personality of, 495–96, 530
Peter III of Russia and, 438, 440
philosophes and, 496–98
Pitt the Elder’s support for, 698
Poland and, 350, 479–84
prophecies of, 530
reforms of, 142, 321, 500
returns from Seven Years’ War, 495
Rousseau and, 173, 497
social and philosophical views of, 496–97, 528–30
Voltaire and, 108, 139, 496–99, 528, 873, 876, 879
IN SEVEN YEARS’ WAR, 44–64
appeal to troops, 51–52
army of, 43
in battle of Leuthen (1757), 51–52
in battle of Rossbach (1757), 50
in battle of Torgau (1760), 60
in battle of Zorndorf (1758), 53
bombards Dresden, 60, 502
campaign in Bohemia, 47–48
campaigns in Saxony, 44–45, 49–50, 54, 60, 61
campaigns in Silesia, 51–53, 55, 60–61
coalitions against, 45–46
contemplates suicide, 54
defeat at Kunersdorf (1759), 55
diplomacy leading to, 39–40, 42
espionage system of, 43–44
letters to Voltaire, 59–60
peace negotiations, 47–48, 63–64
pessimism over victory, 46–49
poems written during, 49–50, 59
prestige of, 63
refuses French peace feelers, 56–57
strategy of, 44
in winter of 1759–60, 56, 59
Frederick II, Landgrave of Hesse-Cassel (r. 1760–85), 504, 525
Frederick IV, King of Denmark (r. 1690–1730), 235, 650
Frederick V, King of Denmark (r. 1746–66), 517, 651, 652
Frederick VI, King of Denmark (r. 1784–1808 as regent; 1808–39 as king), 653
Frederick Augustus I, Elector of Saxony, see Augustus II the Strong, King of Poland
Frederick Augustus II, Elector of Saxony, see Augustus III, King of Poland
Frederick Augustus III, Elector of Saxony (r. 1768–1806), 406, 502
Frederick Louis, Prince of Wales (1707–51), 687
Frederick William I, King of Prussia (r. 1713–1740), 426, 526
Frederick William II, King of Prussia (r. 1786–97), 333, 377, 405, 461, 540
alliance with Turkey (1785), 363
betrays and invades Poland, 489–90
death of, 547
Frederick II’s doubts on, 530
Kant threatened by, 545–46
Frederick William III, King of Prussia (r. 1797–1840), liberal policies of, 547
Frederick William, Great Elector of Brandenburg, (r. 1640–88), 528
Fredman, Jan (1712–67), 660
Fredmans Epistlar (Bellmann), 660
Freemasonry, 322, 567
in Austria, 358
Casanova and, 323
doctrines of, 939
in England, 734, 938
in France, 94, 869, 938–39
in German states, 507, 938
in Italy, 220
Jesuits and, 939
in Russia, 465
spread of, 938
free trade: Austria rejects, 344–45
in England, 670–71
France and, 859–60, 935
in Portugal, 269
in Russia, 455
in Sweden, 657
in Tuscany, 313
Free Trade Act (1779) for Ireland, 761
free trade doctrines, see Smith, Adam; physiocrats
Freiberg, Saxony, battle of (1762), 61
Freiburg, university at, 360
Freidenkerlexikon, 507
Freigeist, Der (Lessing), 508–9
French Academy (Académie Française, Forty Immortals), 353, 824, 894
emulation of, 280, 569
Voltaire and, 137, 877, 879
French America, 38–39, 58, 68, 89, 698, 709, 935
English conquest of, 57–58, 62, 68
Martinique restored to France, 62
French Guards, 959, 963
French Guiana, 89
French Revolution, 286, 333, 336, 363, 490, 496, 634, 900–63
American Revolution and, 872
art and, 117–18, 912–13
attacks on châteaux in, 931
basic purpose of, 937
Burke’s opposition to, 722–23, 806
Catherine II and, 465, 469,
Church and, 902, 931, 937, 940
city populace and, 899
communist theorists
in, 80, 937–38
Condorcet’s contribution to, 894–95
Corsica and, 313
court and, 939–40
Declaration of the Rights of Man and, 642, 872
defiance of Dauphiné Estates and, 948
economic inequality and, 937
emigrés from, 963
England and, 683, 721–26
eve of, 954–56
feudalism abolished by, 872, 937
fraternization of troops with people in, 959–60
Freemasons and, 938–39
German Enlightenment and, 590–91
Gibbon’s fear of, 805–6
Goethe’s opposition to, 622
government corruption and, 939
Holland and, 364, 648–49
hunger and, 940
industry and, 931–34
Italy and, 311
Jews and, 642
Kant’s enthusiasm for, 548
middle class and, 899, 934–37, 939
nobles and, 899, 927–30
peasants and, 927–31
phases of, 725, 899
philosophes and, 143, 880, 959–60, 937–38, 940
political clubs and, 939
press censorship and, 940
religious tolerance and, 642
Réveillon factory riot and, 956
role of Paris in, 961–63
Rousseau and, 3, 177, 880, 890
socialism and, 938
Sweden and, 662, 664
Switzerland and, 644–45, 805–6
terrorist period of, 725, 899
Voltaire and, 143, 880
wars of, 488, 872
workers and, 933–34
French West Indies, 709
Fréron, Élie (1719–76), 108, 136, 149, 922
Friederike of Mecklenburg-Strelitz, Princess, 523
Friedrich Christian (1765–1814), Duke of Holstein-Augustenburg, 594
Friesen, Count von (fl. 1750), 33
Friuli, 229
Froebel, Friedrich (1782–1852), 888
Fuga, Ferdinando (1699–1781), 247
Fullerton, duel with Shelburne, 732
Fulton, Robert (1765–1815), 932
Funeral of Danish Comedy, The (Holberg), 650
Fürnberg, Karl Joseph von (fl. 1755), 374
furniture: English, 523, 748
French, 106–7, 910
German, 523
Fürstenbund (League of Princes), 362–63
gabelle, 936
Gabriel, Jacques-Ange (1698–1782), 87, 111
Gabrielli, Caterina (1730–96), 333
Gaime, Abbé (fl. 1728), 183
Gainsborough, Thomas (1727–88), 740, 755–57
Bath period, 756
as colorist, 757
death of, 757
early life of, 755
in London, 756–57
marriage to Margaret Burr, 755
nature paintings of, 756–57
personality of, 755, 757
Reynolds and, 756–57
Galiani, Abbé Ferdinando (1728–87), 75, 120, 251, 327, 333, 587, 908
Galicia: Jews in, 632, 641
salt deposits in, 344
Galilei, Alessandro (1691–1736), 247