Commendations and Farewell
14 I am writing these things to you via Crescens, whom I recently commended to you and now commend again, for his conduct while with us has been blameless, and I believe that it will be likewise with you. And you will consider his sister to be commended when she comes to you. Farewell in the Lord Jesus Christ in grace, you and all those with you. Amen.
The Martyrdom of Polycarp
Introduction
The letter from the church at Smyrna to the church at Philomelium known as The Martyrdom of Polycarp is the oldest written account of a Christian martyrdom outside the New Testament. A genuine letter integrating narrative and pastoral elements, it was the model for what would become a popular genre of literature, the martyrdom. Apparently written by eyewitnesses (15.1) not long after the event (18.1), it records, in sometimes gruesome detail, the pursuit, arrest, trial, and execution of Polycarp, the beloved eighty-six-year-old bishop of the church of Smyrna.
This account bears eloquent testimony to a growing challenge confronting the church around the middle of the second century. Because of its belief in one God, the church found itself engaged in a struggle with the Roman state in which compromise was not possible and from which eventually only one side would emerge victorious. The Martyrdom of Polycarp sets out quite clearly both the issue at stake—Lord Christ versus Lord Caesar (Mart. Pol. 10.1)—and the state’s (as well as the general population’s) view of Christians as disloyal atheists who threatened the well-being of the empire. In the face of this antipathy, the steadfastness of Polycarp’s faith in Christ and the fearlessness with which he faced death made him a model for many believers who found themselves in similar circumstances during the course of the next century and a half, until various edicts of toleration issued between AD 311 and 313 (including the letter of Constantine and Licinius in 313 known as the Edict of Milan) brought an end to the conflict and victory to the church.
Central Concerns
The narrative clearly intends to set forth “a martyrdom in accord with the gospel” (1.1; 19.1) as a corrective to erroneous conceptions. The portrait of the havoc caused by Quintus (who volunteered himself, forced others to go forward, and then turned coward) and the community’s response (no praise for volunteers, 4.1) demonstrate an awareness of the dangers of enthusiasm to the well-being and stability of the community.
In a sharp contrast to Quintus, Polycarp’s behavior is presented as exemplary in every respect. But precisely what is it about his behavior that is exemplary? It is evident that in the narrative there are numerous apparent parallels between the arrest, trial, and execution of Jesus and the experiences of Polycarp.[1] In the opinion of many, these parallels provide the key to understanding Polycarp’s martyrdom as an imitation of the passion of Jesus (i.e., Polycarp repeats in his experience the same things that happened to Jesus). But in fact the concept of imitation, which could lead to a focus on the martyr, is subordinated to the idea of following after, which emphasizes more the concept of faithfulness and obedience to God’s will, in whatever form that may take.[2]
Indeed, a martyrdom in accord with the gospel is not one that merely recapitulates or imitates events of the passion of Jesus but rather one that (regardless of whether it parallels any of the events of the passion) (a) is a matter of divine calling rather than human accomplishment or initiative, (b) demonstrates a concern for the salvation or well-being of others, and (c) displays endurance in the midst of suffering. The many incidents that may appear to “imitate” the gospel narratives serve much more fully the author’s goal of establishing the character of Polycarp: primarily as a charismatic and prophetic bishop (cf. 12.3, 16.2) who models in his approach to martyrdom obedience to the divine will (2.1; 7.1), but also secondarily as a figure who embodies many of the heroic and athletic virtues and characteristics idealized by Greco-Roman culture. By means of this presentation of Polycarp as an exemplary figure, the narrative seeks both to preserve the internal stability of the group (something that Quintus threatened) and to meet the challenge of external threats posed by Rome and the surrounding culture.
Integrity and Authenticity
Chapters 21 and 22 may be (and the notes by Gaius, Socrates, and Pionius certainly are) later additions to the text. Moreover, there are differences between Eusebius’s citations and the text preserved by the manuscript tradition. These circumstances have led to suggestions that the main narrative itself has been interpolated; in particular, Campenhausen thinks that the story has been expanded in light of the Gospels by a later interpolator in order to make more obvious the parallels between the sufferings of Jesus and Polycarp.[3] But the value of the differences between the manuscripts and Eusebius is questionable, especially as Eusebius himself may be responsible for some of them. Moreover, the imitatio Christi motif is no indicator of lateness, since it occurs as early as Paul’s writings. Consequently, in recent studies Campenhausen’s thesis has been modified or rejected.[4] The thesis that the Martyrdom is a mid-third-century forgery[5] is even less compelling, as it neglects details that anchor the narrative in the second century but which a third-century forger would be unlikely to know or care about.
The Date of Polycarp’s Martyrdom
Chapter 21 mentions the month and day (Feb. 22, or perhaps 23) but not the year of Polycarp’s death. According to Eusebius, he died in AD 167, but in this instance the reliability of Eusebius’s information is questionable. Evidence that has come to light regarding the proconsulship of Statius Quadratus has led many to adopt a date around 156;[6] this comports well with the fact that not long before his arrest Polycarp visited Bishop Anicetus of Rome, who became bishop there no earlier than 154. In view of the various difficulties, including a possible leap year, greater precision than approximately 155 to 160 is probably unwarranted.[7] If the information provided by chapter 21, which seems to be a later addition to the text (note the last sentence of chapter 20), is discounted, either the Eusebian date[8] or a date early in the reign of Marcus Aurelius (161–180) becomes possible.[9] A date as late as 177 (the year in which several Christians were martyred in Lyons; cf. Eusebius, Church History 5.1.1–63) is intrinsically unlikely.[10]
Text
The text of the Martyrdom is preserved in eight Greek manuscripts, all from the tenth to the thirteenth centuries. One of the eight, the “Moscow manuscript,” offers a different text of the final few paragraphs. Eusebius preserves some extracts from the letter in his Church History (4.15): he quotes the inscription, 1.1a, and 8.1–19.1a, and paraphrases 2.2–7.3. There is also a Latin version of the document.
Bibliography
Commentaries
Lightfoot, J. B. The Apostolic Fathers. Part 2, S. Ignatius; S. Polycarp. 2nd ed. 3 vols. London: Macmillan, 1889. Repr. Grand Rapids: Baker, 1981.
Schoedel, W. R. Polycarp, Martyrdom of Polycarp, Fragments of Papias. Vol. 5 of The Apostolic Fathers, edited by R. M. Grant. Camden, NJ: Nelson, 1967.
Studies
Barnard, L. W. “In Defence of Pseudo-Pionius’ Account of Saint Polycarp’s Martyrdom.” In Kyriakon: Festschrift Johannes Quasten, edited by P. Granfield and J. A. Jungmann, 1:192–204. 2 vols. Münster: Aschendorff, 1970.
Bisbee, Gary A. Pre-Decian Acts of Martyrs and Commentarii. Harvard Dissertations in Religion 22. Philadelphia: Fortress, 1988.
Bowersock, G. W. Martyrdom and Rome. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1995.
Boyarin, Daniel. Dying for God: Martyrdom and the Making of Christianity and Judaism. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 1999.
Dehandschutter, B. “The Martyrium Polycarpi: A Century of Research.” ANRW 2.27.1 (1993): 485–522.
Frend, W. H. C. Martyrdom and Persecution in the Early Church: A Study of a Conflict from the Maccabees to Donatus. Oxford: Blackwell, 1965.
Holmes, Michael W. “The Martyrdom of Polycarp and the New Testament Passion Narrative.” In Trajectories through the New Testament and the Apostolic Fathers, edited by Andrew Gregory and Christopher Tuckett, 407–32. Vo
l. 2 of The New Testament and the Apostolic Fathers. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2005.
Parvis, Sara. “The Martyrdom of Polycarp.” Expository Times 118, no. 3 (2006).
Schoedel, W. R. “Polycarp of Smyrna and Ignatius of Antioch.” ANRW 2.27.1 (1993): 272–358.
Tripp, David. “The Prayer of St Polycarp and the Development of Anaphoral Prayer.” Ephemerides Liturgicae 104 (1990): 97–132.
THE MARTYRDOM OF POLYCARP
Salutation
The church of God that sojourns at Smyrna, to the church of God that sojourns in Philomelium and to all the communities of the holy and catholic church sojourning in every place: may mercy, peace, and love from God the Father and our Lord Jesus Christ be multiplied.
A Martyrdom in Accord with the Gospel
1 We are writing to you, brothers and sisters, an account of those who were martyred, especially the blessed Polycarp, who put an end to the persecution as though he were setting his seal upon it by his martyrdom. For nearly all the preceding events happened in order that the Lord might show us once again a martyrdom that is in accord with the gospel. 2 For he waited to be betrayed, just as the Lord did, in order that we too might be imitators of him, looking not only to our own interests but to our neighbors’ interests as well. For it is the mark of true and steadfast love to desire that not only oneself be saved but all the brothers and sisters as well.
Nobility and Bravery of the Martyrs
2 Blessed and noble, therefore, are all the martyrdoms that have taken place in accordance with the will of God (for we must reverently assign to God the power over all things). 2 For who could fail to admire their nobility and patient endurance and loyalty to the Master? For even when they were so torn by whips that the internal structure of their flesh was visible as far as the inner veins and arteries, they endured so patiently that even the bystanders had pity and wept. But they themselves reached such a level of bravery that not one of them uttered a cry or a groan, thus showing to us all that at the very hour when they were being tortured the martyrs of Christ were absent from the flesh, or rather that the Lord was standing by and conversing with them. 3 And turning their thoughts to the grace of Christ they despised the tortures of this world, purchasing at the cost of one hour an exemption from eternal punishment. And the fire of their inhuman torturers felt cold to them, for they set before their eyes the escape from that eternal fire which is never extinguished, while with the eyes of their heart they gazed upon the good things that are reserved for those who endure patiently, things that neither ear has heard nor eye has seen, nor has it entered into the human heart, but that were shown to them by the Lord, for they were no longer humans but already angels. 4 And in a similar manner those who were condemned to the wild beasts endured terrible punishments—they were forced to lie on sharp shells and afflicted with various other forms of torture in order that he might, if possible, by means of the unceasing punishment compel them to deny their faith—for the devil tried many things against them.
1.1 brothers and sisters Gk adelphoi. • once again Or from above; cf. John 3:3, 7. 1.2 looking . . . as well Phil. 2:4. • brothers and sisters Gk adelphous.
The Example of Germanicus
3 But thanks be to God, for the devil did not prevail against any of them. For the most noble Germanicus encouraged them, fearful though they were, by his own patient endurance; he also fought with the wild beasts in an outstanding way. For when the proconsul wished to persuade him and asked him to consider his youthfulness, he forcibly dragged the wild beast toward himself, desiring to be released as quickly as possible from their unrighteous and lawless life. 2 So after this the whole multitude, marveling at the bravery of the God-loving and God-fearing race of Christians, began shouting, “Away with the atheists! Find Polycarp!”
Cowardly Quintus
4 (Now there was one man, Quintus by name, a Phrygian recently arrived from Phrygia, who, when he saw the wild beasts, turned coward. This was the man who had forced himself and some others to come forward voluntarily. The proconsul, after many appeals, finally persuaded him to swear the oath and to offer the sacrifice. For this reason therefore, brothers and sisters, we do not praise those who hand themselves over, since the gospel does not so teach.)
2.2 martyrs Some ancient authorities read most noble martyrs. 2.3 an exemption . . . punishment One ancient authority reads eternal life. • inhuman One ancient authority reads cruel. • that neither . . . heart 1 Cor. 2:9. 2.4 he I.e., the devil. One ancient authority reads the tyrant.
Polycarp Prophesies His Own Death
5 Now the most admirable Polycarp, when he first heard the news, was not disturbed. In fact, he wanted to remain in town, but the majority persuaded him to withdraw. So he withdrew to a small country house not far from the city and stayed there with a few companions, doing nothing else night and day except praying for everyone and for the churches throughout the world, for this was his constant habit. 2 And while he was praying he fell into a trance three days before his arrest and saw his pillow being consumed by fire. And he turned and said to those who were with him: “It is necessary that I be burned alive.”
Searching for Polycarp
6 And as those who were searching for him persisted, he moved to another country house. Immediately, those searching for him arrived, and not finding him, they seized two young slaves, one of whom confessed under torture. 2 For it really was impossible for him to remain hidden, since the very persons who betrayed him were members of his own household. And the captain of the police, who just happened to have the same name—Herod, as he was called—was eager to bring him into the stadium in order that he [Polycarp] might fulfill his appointed destiny of being made a sharer with Christ, while those who betrayed him received the punishment of Judas himself.
7 So, taking the young slave with them, on Friday about supper time the mounted police and horsemen set out, armed with their usual weapons as though chasing after an armed rebel. And closing in on him late in the evening, they found him in bed in an upstairs room in a small cottage; and though he still could have escaped from there to another place, he refused, saying, “May God’s will be done.” 2 So when he heard that they had arrived, he went down and talked with them, and those who were present marveled at his age and his composure and wondered why there was so much eagerness for the arrest of an old man like him. Then he immediately ordered that a table be set for them to eat and drink as much as they wished at that hour, and he asked them to grant him an hour so that he might pray undisturbed. 3 When they consented, he stood and prayed, so full of the grace of God that for two hours he was unable to stop speaking; those who heard him were amazed, and many regretted that they had come after such a godly old man.
4 brothers and sisters Gk adelphoi. • hand . . . over Some ancient authorities read come forward on their own. 6.1 arrived I.e., at the first farm. 7.1 armed with their . . . rebel Cf. Matt. 26:55. • May . . . done Acts 21:14; cf. Matt. 6:10. 7.3 prayed One ancient authority reads facing the east.
Transporting the Prisoner
8 Now when at last he finished his prayer, after remembering everyone who had ever come in contact with him, both small and great, known and unknown, and all the universal church throughout the world, it was time to depart, and so they seated him on a donkey and brought him into the city on the day of a great sabbath. 2 Herod, the police captain, and his father, Nicetes, came out to meet him. After transferring him to their carriage and sitting down at his side, they tried to persuade him, saying, “Why, what harm is there in saying, ‘Caesar is Lord,’ and offering incense” (and other words to this effect) “and thereby saving yourself?” Now at first he gave them no answer. But when they persisted, he said: “I am not about to do what you are suggesting to me.” 3 Thus failing to persuade him, they began to utter threats and made him dismount in such a hurry that he bruised his shin as he got down from the carriage. And without even turning around, he went on his way eagerly and quickly as if nothing had happened to him, and as
he was led to the stadium, there was such an uproar in the stadium that no one could even be heard.
The Hearing in the Arena
9 But as Polycarp entered the stadium, there came a voice from heaven: “Be strong, Polycarp, and courageous.” And no one saw the speaker, but those of our people who were present heard the voice. And then, as he was brought forward, there was a great uproar when they heard that Polycarp had been arrested. 2 Therefore, when he was brought before him, the proconsul asked if he were Polycarp. And when he confessed that he was, the proconsul tried to persuade him to recant, saying, “Have respect for your age,” and other such things as they are accustomed to say: “Swear by the genius of Caesar; repent; say, ‘Away with the atheists!’” So Polycarp solemnly looked at the whole crowd of lawless heathen who were in the stadium, motioned toward them with his hand, and then (groaning as he looked up to heaven) said, “Away with the atheists!” 3 But when the magistrate persisted and said, “Swear the oath, and I will release you; revile Christ,” Polycarp replied, “For eighty-six years I have been his servant, and he has done me no wrong. How can I blaspheme my King who saved me?”
8.1 great sabbath Cf. John 19:31. 9.1 Be strong . . . courageous Cf. Josh. 1:7. • courageous Or act like a man. 9.2 if he were Polycarp One ancient authority reads if it were he. • genius I.e., the guardian spirit. Or Fortune (goddess of luck). 9.3 have . . . servant One ancient authority reads have served him. 10.1 genius Or Fortune (twice). 10.2 for we have been taught . . . by God Cf. Rom. 13:1; 1 Pet. 2:13–14.
10 But as he continued to insist, saying, “Swear by the genius of Caesar,” he answered: “If you vainly suppose that I will swear by the genius of Caesar, as you request, and pretend not to know who I am, listen carefully: I am a Christian. Now if you want to learn the doctrine of Christianity, name a day and give me a hearing.” 2 The proconsul said: “Persuade the people.” But Polycarp said: “You I might have considered worthy of a reply, for we have been taught to pay proper respect to rulers and authorities appointed by God, as long as it does us no harm; but as for these, I do not think they are worthy, that I should have to defend myself before them.”
The Apostolic Fathers in English Page 18