11 So the proconsul said: “I have wild beasts; I will throw you to them, unless you change your mind.” But he said: “Call for them! For the repentance from better to worse is a change impossible for us; but it is a noble thing to change from that which is evil to righteousness.” 2 Then he said to him again: “I will have you consumed by fire, since you despise the wild beasts, unless you change your mind.” But Polycarp said: “You threaten with a fire that burns only briefly and after just a little while is extinguished, for you are ignorant of the fire of the coming judgment and eternal punishment, which is reserved for the ungodly. But why do you delay? Come, do what you wish.”
The Verdict and the Sentence
12 As he spoke these and many other words, he was inspired with courage and joy, and his face was filled with grace, so that not only did he not collapse in fright at the things that were said to him, but on the contrary the proconsul was astonished, and sent his own herald into the midst of the stadium to proclaim three times: “Polycarp has confessed that he is a Christian.” 2 When this was proclaimed by the herald, the entire crowd, Gentiles as well as Jews living in Smyrna, cried out with uncontrollable anger and with a loud shout: “This is the teacher of Asia, the father of the Christians, the destroyer of our gods, who teaches many not to sacrifice or worship.” Saying these things, they shouted aloud and asked Philip the Asiarch to let a lion loose upon Polycarp. But he said that it was not lawful for him to do so since he had already brought to a close the animal hunts. 3 Then it occurred to them to shout out in unison that Polycarp should be burned alive. For it was necessary that the vision be fulfilled that he received concerning his pillow, when he saw it on fire while praying and turned and said prophetically to the faithful who were with him, “It is necessary that I be burned alive.”
Preparing the Pyre
13 These things then happened with surprising swiftness, quicker than words could tell, the crowd swiftly collecting wood and kindling from the workshops and baths, the Jews being especially eager to assist in this, as is their custom. 2 When the pyre was ready, he took off all his clothes and removed his belt; he also tried to take off his shoes, though not previously in the habit of doing this, because all the faithful were always eager to be the first to touch his flesh. For he had been honored in every respect on account of his holy life even before his martyrdom. 3 Then the materials prepared for the pyre were placed around him; and as they were also about to nail him, he said: “Leave me as I am; for the one who enables me to endure the fire will also enable me to remain on the pyre without moving, even without the sense of security that you get from the nails.”
Polycarp’s Prayer
14 So they did not nail him, but tied him instead. Then, having placed his hands behind himself and having been bound, like a splendid ram chosen from a great flock for a sacrifice, a burnt offering prepared and acceptable to God, he looked up to heaven and said: “O Lord God Almighty, Father of your beloved and blessed Son Jesus Christ, through whom we have received knowledge of you, the God of angels and powers and of all creation, and of the whole race of the righteous who live in your presence, 2 I bless you because you have considered me worthy of this day and hour, so that I might receive a place among the number of the martyrs in the cup of your Christ, to the resurrection to eternal life, both of soul and of body, in the incorruptibility of the Holy Spirit. May I be received among them in your presence today, as a rich and acceptable sacrifice, as you have prepared and revealed beforehand, and have now accomplished, you who are the undeceiving and true God. 3 For this reason, indeed for all things, I praise you, I bless you, I glorify you, through the eternal and heavenly high priest, Jesus Christ, your beloved Son, through whom be glory to you, with him and the Holy Spirit, both now and for the ages to come. Amen.”
Death by Fire and Sword
15 When he had offered up the “Amen” and finished his prayer, the men in charge of the fire lit it. And as a mighty flame blazed up, we saw a miracle (we, that is, to whom it was given to see), and we have been preserved in order that we may tell the rest what happened. 2 For the fire, taking the shape of an arch, like the sail of a ship filled by the wind, completely surrounded the body of the martyr; and it was there in the middle, not like flesh burning but like bread baking or like gold and silver being refined in a furnace. For we also perceived a very fragrant aroma, as if it were the scent of incense or some other precious spice.
13.2 pyre Some ancient authorities read fire. • martyrdom One ancient authority reads gray hair appeared.
16 When the lawless men eventually realized that his body could not be consumed by the fire, they ordered an executioner to go up to him and stab him with a dagger. And when he did this, there came out a dove and a large quantity of blood, so that it extinguished the fire; and the whole crowd was amazed that there should be so great a difference between the unbelievers and the elect. 2 This man was certainly one of the elect, the most remarkable Polycarp, who proved to be an apostolic and prophetic teacher in our own time, bishop of the catholic church in Smyrna. For every word that came from his mouth was accomplished and will be accomplished.
Conflict over Polycarp’s Body
17 But the jealous and envious Evil One, the adversary of the race of the righteous, when he observed the greatness of Polycarp’s martyrdom and the irreproachable character of his life from the beginning, and realized that he was now crowned with the crown of immortality and had won a prize that no one could challenge, saw to it that not even his poor body should be taken away by us, even though many desired to do this and to touch his holy flesh. 2 So he incited Nicetes, the father of Herod and brother of Alce, to appeal to the magistrate not to hand over his body, “or else,” he said, “they may abandon the crucified one and begin to worship this man.” All this was done at the instigation and insistence of the Jews, who even watched when we were about to take the body from the fire. They did not know that we will never be able either to abandon the Christ who suffered for the salvation of the whole world of those who are saved, the blameless on behalf of sinners, or to worship anyone else. 3 For we worship this one, who is the Son of God, but the martyrs we love as disciples and imitators of the Lord, as they deserve, on account of their matchless devotion to their own King and Teacher. May we also become their partners and fellow disciples!
16.1 a dove and One ancient authority omits. 16.2 remarkable Some ancient authorities read remarkable martyr. • catholic Some ancient authorities read holy. 17.1 to touch Or to commune with, or possibly to receive a part of, i.e., as a relic.
18 The centurion, therefore, seeing the opposition raised by the Jews, set Polycarp’s body in the middle and cremated it, as is their custom. 2 And so later on we took up his bones, which are more valuable than precious stones and finer than refined gold, and deposited them in a suitable place. 3 There, when we gather together as we are able, with joy and gladness, the Lord will permit us to celebrate the birthday of his martyrdom in commemoration of those who have already fought in the contest and also for the training and preparation of those who will do so in the future.
Summary: A Martyrdom in Accord with the Gospel
19 Such is the story of the blessed Polycarp. Although he (together with those from Philadelphia) was the twelfth person martyred in Smyrna, he alone is especially remembered by everyone, so that he is spoken of everywhere, even by pagans. He proved to be not only a distinguished teacher but also an outstanding martyr whose martyrdom all desire to imitate since it was in accord with the pattern of the gospel of Christ. 2 By his endurance he defeated the unrighteous magistrate and so received the crown of immortality; now he rejoices with the apostles and all the righteous, and glorifies the almighty God and Father, and blesses our Lord Jesus Christ, the Savior of our souls and Helmsman of our bodies and Shepherd of the catholic church throughout the world.
Instructions and Farewell
20 You did indeed request that the things that happened be reported to you in some detail, but for the
present we have given a summary, as it were, through our brother Marcion. When you have informed yourselves about these things, send the letter on to the brothers and sisters who are farther away, in order that they too may glorify the Lord, who selects from among his own servants. 2 Now to the one who is able to bring us all by his grace and bounty into his eternal kingdom, through his only begotten Son, Jesus Christ, be glory, honor, power, and majesty forever. Greet all the saints. Those who are with us greet you, as does Evarestus, who wrote this, and his whole house.
Later Additions: The Date of the Martyrdom
21 Now the blessed Polycarp was martyred on the second day of the first part of the month Xanthicus, seven days before the calends of March, on a great sabbath, about two o’clock in the afternoon. He was arrested by Herod when Philip of Tralles was high priest during the proconsulship of Statius Quadratus, but while Jesus Christ was reigning as King forever. To him be glory, honor, majesty, and the eternal throne from generation to generation. Amen.
20.1 Marcion One ancient authority reads Marcianus; some ancient authorities read Mark. • brothers and sisters Gk adelphois. 21 On the date of Polycarp’s death, see the introduction.
A Second Farewell
22 We bid you farewell, brothers and sisters, as you walk by the word of Jesus Christ that is in accord with the gospel; with whom be glory to God for the salvation of the holy elect; just as the blessed Polycarp was martyred, in whose footsteps may we also be found in the kingdom of Jesus Christ.
A Note from Socrates
2 Gaius (who lived in the same city as Irenaeus) transcribed this account from the papers of Irenaeus, a disciple of Polycarp. And I, Socrates, wrote it down in Corinth from the copies of Gaius. Grace be with everyone.
A Note from Pionius
3 And I, Pionius, wrote it down again from the previously-mentioned copy, after making a search for it (for the blessed Polycarp showed it to me in a revelation, as I will explain in the sequel). I gathered it together when it was nearly worn out by age, so that the Lord Jesus Christ might also gather me together with his chosen ones into his heavenly kingdom; to whom be the glory with the Father and the Holy Spirit forever and ever. Amen.
THE ENDING ACCORDING TO THE MOSCOW MANUSCRIPT
2 Gaius transcribed this account from the papers of Irenaeus; he also lived in the same city as Irenaeus, who had been a disciple of the holy Polycarp. For this Irenaeus, who was in Rome at the time of the martyrdom of the bishop Polycarp, instructed many people; and many most excellent and orthodox writings of his are in circulation. In these he makes mention of Polycarp, saying that he had been taught by him. And he ably refuted every heresy and handed on the ecclesiastical and catholic rule just as he had received it from the saint. He mentions this fact also, that when Marcion, after whom the Marcionites are named, once met the holy Polycarp and said, “Recognize us, Polycarp,” he said in reply to Marcion, “Yes, I recognize you; I recognize the firstborn of Satan!” The following statement also is made in the writings of Irenaeus, that on the very day and hour when Polycarp was martyred in Smyrna, Irenaeus, who was in the city of Rome, heard a voice like a trumpet saying, “Polycarp has been martyred.” From these papers of Irenaeus, then, as has been stated already, Gaius transcribed a copy, and from the copy of Gaius Isocrates made another in Corinth.
21 Jesus Christ Some ancient authorities read our Lord Jesus Christ. 22.1 We bid . . . Christ Some ancient authorities omit the entire paragraph. • brothers and sisters Gk adelphoi. • God Some ancient authorities read God the Father and the Holy Spirit.
3 And I, Pionius, wrote it down again from the copy of Isocrates, after searching for it in obedience to a revelation of the holy Polycarp, gathering it together when it was nearly worn out by age, so that the Lord Jesus Christ might also gather me together with his chosen ones into his heavenly kingdom; to whom be the glory with the Father and the Son and the Holy Spirit forever and ever. Amen.
The Didache
Introduction
The Teaching of the Lord to the Gentiles by the Twelve Apostles, or The Teaching of the (Twelve) Apostles, as it was known in ancient times, or simply The Didache (“The Teaching”), as it is usually known today, is one of the most fascinating yet perplexing documents to emerge from the early church. Although the title was known from references to it by ancient writers (some of whom apparently used it as scripture),[1] no copy was known to exist until 1873, when Philotheos Bryennios discovered a manuscript that contained, among other things, the full text of The Didache, which he published in 1883. Since then it has been the focus of scholarly attention to an extent quite out of proportion to its modest length. Yet for all that attention such basic information as who wrote it and where and when it was written remain as much a mystery as when it was first discovered.
Three sections are evident in this anonymous document: (a) 1.1–6.2, which offers teaching about the “Two Ways” of life and death; (b) 6.3–15.4, comprised of instructions dealing with church practice and order; and (c) 16.1–8, a brief apocalyptic section.
The Two Ways material appears to have been intended, in light of 7.1, as a summary of basic instruction about the Christian life to be taught to those who were preparing for baptism and church membership. The “way of life” (1.2–4.14), which opens with the love command and the Golden Rule, is comprised almost entirely of dos and don’ts, while the “way of death” (5.1–2) is a description of evil actions and persons.
The second part of the document consists of instructions about food (6.3), baptism (7.1–4), fasting (7.4–8.1), prayer (8.2–3), the Eucharist (9.1–10.7), and assorted practical issues related to various ministries and positions of leadership (11.1–15.4). In addition to providing the earliest evidence of a mode of baptism other than immersion, it records the oldest known Christian eucharistic prayers and a form of the Lord’s Prayer quite similar to that found in the Gospel of Matthew. There is a concern to differentiate Christian practice from Jewish piety (cf. 8.1–2) and to prevent abuses of the church’s hospitality (11.3–6; cf. Lucian, Peregrinus 13).
The document closes with an apocalyptic section (perhaps incomplete) that has much in common with the so-called Synoptic Apocalypse found in Mark 13, Matthew 24–25, and Luke 24.
The Didache as a Composite Document
In its present form, the Two Ways section represents the Christianization (by means of, e.g., the insertion of collections of gospel sayings and related admonitions, such as 1.3–2.1) of a common Jewish form of moral instruction. Material similar to that of the Two Ways section is found in a number of other Christian writings from the first through about the fifth centuries, including The Epistle of Barnabas, The Didascalia, The Apostolic Church Order, The Summary of Doctrine, The Apostolic Constitutions, The Life of Shenoute, and On the Teaching of the Apostles (or Doctrina Apostolorum), some of which are dependent on The Didache. The interrelationships between these various documents are quite complex, and much remains to be worked out. The connections between The Didache and The Epistle of Barnabas have been the focus of considerable attention. Rather than either one being directly dependent upon the other, it seems much more likely that both are dependent, perhaps indirectly, on a common source, and thus are examples of what Kraft has termed “evolved literature,”[2] in which similar material may be utilized quite differently.[3]
The “church order” section also bears evidence of change over time (e.g., compare 11.4 with 12.1, or note the intrusive character of 14.1–3). But the “evolved” nature of this part of the document is due at least in part to its origin in a Christian community that is itself evolving: a transition from (more charismatic?) itinerant ministers to (less glamorous?) resident leadership (15.2) is evident, as is tension between the ideal and the actual (6.2).
The explanation of the “composite” character of The Didache is much debated. Some consider it to be the work of a single individual who combined traditional material (both written and oral) with original contributions to create the document as we re
ad it today, while others view it as a community production.[4] Many consider it to have evolved in stages, its current form (including rough transitions, tensions between sections, and insertions) being the result of the work of multiple contributors at various times.[5]
One common consequence of the view that The Didache is a composite document is the conclusion (or perhaps assumption) that it is a collage lacking any consistent internal structure or coherence. Not all, however, are convinced that this is the case; indeed, Milavec has argued at length that the document has a previously overlooked general internal coherence arising from its own internal logic and rooted in its character as a fundamentally oral document.[6] Clearly the last word has yet to be said on this matter.
Date and Place
A remarkably wide range of dates, extending from before AD 50 to the third century or later, has been proposed for this document. Dating The Didache is made difficult by a lack of hard evidence and by its composite character. Thus the date when the anonymous author or authors compiled this document on the basis of earlier materials must be differentiated from the time represented by the materials so utilized. The Didache may have been put into its present form as late as 150, though a date considerably closer to the end of the first century seems more probable. The materials from which it was composed reflect the state of the church at an even earlier time. The relative simplicity of the prayers, the continuing concern to differentiate Christian practice from Jewish rituals (8.1), and in particular the form of church structure—note the twofold structure of bishops and deacons (cf. Phil. 1:1) and the continued existence of traveling apostles and prophets alongside a resident ministry—reflect a time closer to that of Paul and James (who died in the 60s) than Ignatius (who died sometime after 110).
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