Essay Concerning Human Understanding (Locke), 295
Essays (Montaigne): and body linked to text, 163, 166; and customs and cultures, 155, 157–58, 164, 257; different editions of, 160, 162; on education, 166; and Erasmus, 68; and essay “Apology for Raymond Sebond,” 165; and essay “Of a Monstrous Child,” 164–65; and essay “Of Books,” 166; and essay “Of Cannibals,” 158, 164, 257; and essay “Of Cripples,” 164; and essay “Of Cruelty,” 164; and essay “Of Experience,” 167; and essay “Of Friendship,” 160; and essay “Of Idleness,” 162, 163; and essay “Of Moderation,” 158; and essay “Of Physiognomy,” 166; and essay “Of Practice,” 163; and essay “Of Presumption,” 165; and essay “Of the Useful and the Honorable,” 165; and ethics, 155, 164, 165; and form of the essay, 161; and humanism, 156, 165; and knowledge, 155, 164–65; and moral themes, 158, 164–65; and nature, 164–65; as personal and public, 161; and philosophy, 155, 158, 159, 161–68; and process of self-revision, 165; and Renaissance, 156; and the self, 155, 393
étranger, L’ (The Stranger) (Camus): and absurdity, 545, 631; and colonial North Africa, 14; and Meursault, 631; and narrative, 596, 597; and outsider figure, 13
Euripides, 193, 197
existentialism: and Duthuit’s journal Transition, 630; and engagement, 41; and L’étranger (Camus), 13; and existential literature, 544–45, 547–48, 600; and French thought, 22, 629; and La nausée (Sartre), 13, 600, 610
fables: adaptation of, 229; and authority of scholars, 234; and fable “The Power of Fables” (La Fontaine), 240; and fictional fabliaux, 102; and the Heptameron (Marguerite de Navarre), 102, 104; and La Fontaine, 230–32, 236, 238–39, 240, 250, 264; moral lessons from, 20, 236, 239; and origin of politics, 247
fairy tales: adaptation of, 229, 336; and authority of scholars, 234; and “Beauty and the Beast” in Beaumont’s “Magasins,” 336; and Contes de ma mere l’oye (Mother Goose’s Tales) (Perrault), 336; and Marie-Jeanne L’Heritier de Villandon, 225; and love and happiness, 336; and oral traditions, 224, 336; and Perrault’s contes des fées, 281; printed editions of, 224; and telling of at court and salons, 224, 225; and women’s conversation, 223–24; and women’s role as mothers, 225; and women writers, 224, 336. See also Aulnoy, Marie-Catherine d’; Perrault, Charles
fausse suivante, La (Marivaux): and absence of family, 357; and gender and cross-dressing, 357, 358; and names of servants, 353–54; and Trivelin’s identity, 354
faux-monnayeurs, Les (The Counterfeiters) (Gide), 521, 522, 535, 536, 596
feminism, 31, 103, 223, 295, 367, 468. See also women’s writing
Fénelon, François, 271, 285–86
Flaubert, Gustave: and Académie française, 634; and ancient Carthage in Salammbo, 466; and autonomy of literature, 10; and the bildungsroman, 433n1; and Bouvard and Pecuchet, 460, 467; and clichés of language, 459–62, 467; and Un coeur simple (A Simple Heart), 462; devotion to writing of, 460; and free indirect discourse, 452; and history of modernity, 630; and impersonality of narration, 451–52, 466–67; and importance of language, 466–67; and Madame Bovary trial, 10, 37–38, 462, 463, 464–66, 468; and Montaigne as a prose writer, 168; and morality, 452, 464–66; and novel’s form, 519; philosophy of creation of, 452; and problematic nature of realism, 465–66; and Proust, 518, 519; and religious themes, 466; and Sentimental Education, 466, 536; style of, 452, 461, 466–67; and use of pronoun on (one), 466–67. See also Madame Bovary
fleurs du mal, Les (Baudelaire): architecture of, 472; and dedication to Gautier, 507; and the flâneur, 508; and literary debates, 536
Foucault, Michel: and Le neveu de Rameau (Rameau’s Nephew) (Diderot), 389; and sex as part of identity, 201; work of, 156, 168
Fouquet, Nicolas, 254, 262, 263
France: and abstraction and reason, 25, 40; and abuses of Church and Parliament, 66; and the “Affair of the Placards” by Swiss radicals, 100; as an agrarian society, 353; and authorization of public speaking, 243; and Anne Boleyn, 101, 223; and capitalism, 550; and Caribbean islands Martinique and Guadeloupe, 575, 637; and Catholicism, 22, 66, 67, 132, 223; and the centralizing principle, 22, 23, 25, 36; and Christianity, 132; and civil war, 4, 113, 114, 123, 128, 263, 264; and the Collège de France, 50; and colonialism, 299, 300, 550, 636–44, 647; and colonization, 256–57; and the Comédie Française, 436, 441–42; and conquest of Algeria, 636, 637, 642, 648; and conquest of Occitania, 16; and crises of the 1930s, 534–35; as cultural center of Europe, 11; and cultural identity, 535; and cultures of Brazil, 158; and the Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen, 419; and the Declaration of Vienna, 425; and dispute between Erasmus and Béda, 51; and divine reason, 126–27; and the Dreyfus affair, 12; and early capitalism, 418; as egalitarian, 419; and the eighteenth century, 234, 257, 286, 295, 299–302, 330, 335, 338–39, 345; and Empire, 143, 299, 419, 433, 438, 444, 466, 637; and expansion of reading public, 33–35; and former North African colonies, 634; and French Indochina, 637, 638; and French literacy, 23–24, 32, 33, 34, 339; and Frenchness, 21, 22; and French Resistance, 554; and Fronde era, 178, 203, 263, 264; and Henri II’s peace with England, 123; and Huguenots, 121; and humanism, 49, 50, 143, 156, 157; and imperial expansion, 140, 146, 575; and importance of sentiment, 40; in the “Indies,” 124; and infant mortality, 402; and influence of Petrarch, 117; and international trade, 299, 300, 301; and Italian wars, 118; and Jesuit accounts of Americas and Near East, 257; and John Locke, 295; languages spoken in, 23, 24; and leftist coalition Popular Front, 552; and liberty, 334–35; and literary history, 6–12; and Lyons, 3, 36, 71, 140; and Madagascar, 638; and the Maghreb, 638; and Marie Antoinette, 333–34; and media in the 1930s, 535; and meritocracy, 419; and military might and expansion, 138, 140, 143; and modern language, 24; and monarchies, 419, 436–37; and Montaigne’s politics, 165–66; and Napoleon Bonaparte, 332, 417, 420; and national-cultural institutions, 11, 21–22; national identity of, 21, 379; and national literary culture, 7, 20, 536; and native French speakers, 640; and Newtonian ideas, 338; and the nineteenth century, 330, 333, 433; and noble ancestry required for army career, 364; and “overseas departements,” 578, 637, 638; and poetry in Provençal, 149; and politics of novels in 1930s, 534–36; and post-Napoleonic society, 432; and power of self-interest, 234–35; and prepublication censorship, 36–37; and President Sarkozy, 213; and the public figure of the intellectual, 244, 375–76; and the querelle des bouffons, 379; and Racine as foremost tragedian, 191; and the Reign of Terror, 504–5; and religious zealots’ cruelty, 164; and Renaissance, 147, 150; and Republics, 419, 433; and respect for literary heritage, 44; and the Restoration, 420, 423, 426, 432–33, 438, 441, 444; and Ronsard’s poetry, 132–33; and second wave of colonization, 637–38; and “seigneurial rights,” 366; and the seventeenth century, 168, 203, 220, 224, 225, 233, 234, 257, 269; and the Seven Years’ War, 299–300, 374; sexual mores of, 295, 327; and shaping of French culture, 21–22, 140, 375; and the sixteenth century, 20, 21, 32, 73, 94, 137, 141, 144, 151, 156–57, 160, 199, 233, 234; and social conduct of politeness, 234; as source for Djebar, 649; and status as a world power, 302; and theater, 199–200, 351–69; and the Thirty Years War, 230; and travel writing, 256; and treaty with Spain, 91; and the twentieth century, 257; and Vichy regime, 552; and Voyage au bout de la nuit (Céline), 541, 542; and Wars of Religion, 7, 51, 85, 156–57, 160, 215; and war with England, 299–300, 302; and widows, 356–57; and women’s conversation, 220–23; and women’s rights, 334–35; and the word “Gaul,” 152–53n2. See also colonialism; French Revolution; Lyons, France; Paris, France
Franciade, La (Ronsard): and alexandrine line, 128–29, 134; and decasyllabic line, 123, 127, 132; as epic, 121, 129; and poetry, 125, 126; royal orders for composition of, 127
François I: and Cartier’s expeditions to North America, 256; and centralized state formation, 8; and Claude de Bretagne, 67; death of, 120; and dispute between Erasmus and Béda, 51; and letter to Erasmus, 50; and Marguerite de Navarre, 25, 51, 91; and Clement Marot, 123; and marriage of Marguerite de Navarre’s daughter, 99; a
nd printing, 36
francophone literature: and Algerian francophone literature, 638; and the Anthologie de la nouvelle poésie nègre et malgache de langue française, 646; and Cahier d’un retour au pays natal (Notebook of a Return to the Native Land), 647; and Aimé Césaire, 14, 591, 647; and decolonization, 646; and Assia Djebar, 14, 635–50; and fiction, 44; and foreignness, 644–45; and France’s colonies, 591, 638, 639; and francophone culture, 14, 644, 646, 647; and francophone writers’ homelands and culture, 647; and French colonialism, 636–44, 646; and French language, 640–44, 646, 647; and Frenchness of authors, 645; and history, 643–44, 648, 649; and history of modern French literature, 636; and Marie NDiaye, 637; readership of, 45, 643, 644; and Leopold Senghor, 646–47; and term “francophone,” 645–46; and true lives, 44; and women writers, 650; and writer’s biography, 636, 643, 644, 649. See also Césaire, Aimé; amour, la fantasia, L’ (Djebar)
French literature: and aesthetics, 521, 530, 538, 548, 550; and ancient literature as battleground, 447; and antiquity, 151, 330, 447; and authors not born in France, 636–37; and Samuel Beckett, 14, 615–32; Beckett as teacher of, 619; and beginnings of in sixteenth century, 16, 18; and bienséance, 39; and bourgeois values, 205, 206; and Emma Bovary’s readings, 455; and Caribbean plantation culture, 583; and censorship, 36–38, 288, 291, 443–44; and centralizing tendency, 42; and Césaire’s poetry, 575, 580–84; and characters in theater and novels, 202–3; and Cioran, 166; and clarity and reason, 13, 22, 28, 40; and classicism, 22, 26, 29, 40, 42; and colonialism and native land, 14, 575–76, 580–81; and commercialization, 44–45; and Correspondance littéraire (Grimm as editor), 374, 382; and Un coup de Dés jamais n’abolira le Hasard (Mallarmé), 495–99; and courtly writing, 21, 166; and créolité (Creoleness), 575, 589; and criticism, 39–42; and culturalism, 592; and deaths of writers, printers, and translators, 100; and De la littérature (On Literature) (Staël), 332; and Joachim du Bellay, 68; and eavesdropping, 222–23; and the eighteenth-century novel, 312–28; and Enlightenment, 22, 28, 29, 42, 43, 241, 298, 333; and existentialism, 22, 41, 544–45; and first-person fiction, 595–96; and Flaubert’s devotion to writing, 460; and Flaubert’s realism, 451–68; and foreignness, 13–14; and francophone culture, 14, 635, 640; and francophone literature, 44, 45, 591, 635–50; and free indirect discourse, 206, 452; and French language, 648; and fusion of classical and biblical antiquity, 48, 49, 68; and André Gide, 155, 521, 522; and “good taste,” 39; and Greek and Roman antiquity, 137; and Horace’s idea of usefulness, 40; and humanism, 151; identity of, 14, 21; and immigration, 45; and immorality, 352, 464; and importance of moralists, 238; and importance of sentiment, 40; and improving society, 352, 398, 465; and influences of other countries and ideas, 22–23; and internationalism, 11–12; and introduction of printing, 21; and journalism, 27–28, 33, 39; La Fontaine as emblematic figure of, 252; and Landmarks of French Literature (Strachey), 2; and La Rochefoucauld, 166; and Lettres provinciales (Pascal), 241–42; and literacy, 229; and literary nationalism, 11; and literary trials, 10, 37–38, 452, 462–68; and literature in European languages, 137; and littérature engagée, 110; and medieval literary forms, 52, 59, 61, 62, 102; and membership in canon, 5, 9, 332; and metafiction, 521; and metaphor, 17, 393, 508; and modern literature, 157, 451, 470, 510; and modern novel, 595–613; and modern subject, 266; and the modern writer, 615–16; and modes of philosophical narrative, 96; and mondain writers, 225; and moral and religious beliefs as relative, 257; and moral indignation, 241, 470; and moralist writers, 248; and morality, 280, 464, 471, 477; and movements after 1820, 41; and music, 537–38, 612; and Napoleon Bonaparte, 419–23; and national classics, 9; and national identity, 11; and national literary culture, 12–13, 14, 270; as a national literature in competition with others, 144; and new careers with the rise of the middle class, 26; and Le neveu de Rameau (Rameau’s Nephew) (Diderot), 384; and New Criticism, 22, 29, 38; and new forms of writing, 45–46; and opposition to power, 28, 33; and oral traditions, 224, 227; and Paris Parlement, 372; and Pascal as an engaged intellectual, 243–44; and philosophy, 286–87; and Pipelet’s public reading at the Lycée des Arts, 335; and poem Chatelaine de Vergy, 105–6; and poem “Le siècle de Louis Le Grand” (Perrault), 270; and poetry, 3–5, 27, 28, 59–61, 64–65, 91–92, 97, 101, 113–35; and polyphony, 342, 586; and postcolonial writing, 14, 576, 587–88; and postmodernism, 42; and prepublication censorship, 36–37, 38; and principle of immanence, 171; and printing revolution of 1830s, 35; prizes for, 536–37, 539; and progressive ideas, 28, 38–39; and prose, 13, 39, 127, 128, 130, 147, 152, 168, 242; and prosecution for obscenity, 38; and public figure of the intellectual, 332, 376; and Quarrels, 8–9, 39–40, 172, 213, 270–86, 375, 379; and race problems, 45; and Racine, 619; and readership, 1–3, 26–28, 31–35, 38–39, 212–13, 229; and realism, 102, 415, 416–18, 420, 426, 429, 451–68; and relation with nation, 14, 38; and the Renaissance, 42, 43, 68–69, 137–38, 151; and the republic of letters, 332; and the Restoration, 439; and revolutionary change, 551–52; and rise of the Internet, 45; role and power of, 113, 139; and Roman de la Rose (Romance of the Rose), 138; and Romanticism, 42, 394, 436–48; and Ronsard’s prosody, 4; and Jean-Jacques Rousseau, 393–94; and Rousseau’s modern, divided self, 394–95, 411; and scholar-printer-publishers, 36; and the seventeenth century, 212–27, 229, 245, 253; and shaping of French culture, 143–44; and shaping of individual and collective life stories, 241; and the sixteenth century, 71, 72, 73, 85, 92, 139; and social lives of authors, 522; and social situation of the French writer, 549–50; and stream-of-consciousness, 206; and structuralism and deconstruction, 42; and theological tradition, 61; and travel narratives, 250–66; and Troyat’s L’araigne, 551–52; and the true, the good, and the beautiful, 40, 465; and use of je (I), 529–30; and values of honnêteté, 33; and vanity of existence, 264; and vernacular literature, 52, 54; and vraisemblance (verisimilitude), 39; and vulgar style, 52; and widows, 356–57; and women, 45, 330–48, 356–57; and women in pedagogy, 335–38; and women’s conversation, 220–23; and work of Pierre Boiastuau, 92; and world literature in French, 11; and writing without style, 615. See also classicism; drama; French poetry; genre; New Criticism; printing; theater; women’s writing
Frenchness: and centralizing principle, 22; and clarity and reason of art and thought, 22; and diversity, 45; of France, 21; and French formalism, 22; and importance of Catholicism, 22; and Mallarmé, 13; and national literary culture, 7, 11, 13, 14; and Occitan troubadour poetry, 16; and readership, 31
French poetry: and alexandrine verse form, 4, 116, 119, 122, 123, 126–34, 151, 479, 491n3; and amity/love, 132, 134, 569–70; and Les antiquitez de Rome (The Antiquities of Rome) (du Bellay), 150; and Guillaume Apollinaire, 4, 510; and Apollinaire’s “Lundi rue Christine,” 548, 551; and the apostrophe, 473, 489; and “art for art’s sake,” 507; and Art poétique françois (The French Art of Poetry) (Sébillet), 139; and Charles Baudelaire, 4, 470–78, 507–8; and Samuel Beckett, 620–21, 623; and André Breton, 5, 554–62, 569–70; and caesura, 491–92n4, 491n3; and Aimé Césaire, 575, 576; and civil war polemics, 128; and René Char, 5, 122, 554, 559, 562, 563–73; and classical poetry, 68, 113–17, 122, 123; and Vittoria Colonna, 91; and concrete poetry, 510; and Un coup de Dés jamais n’abolira le Hasard (Mallarmé), 503; and courtly poet Théophile de Viau, 230; and decadence, 491; and decasyllabic line, 4, 115–16, 118, 126, 127, 128, 129, 132, 134, 151, 479; and decolonization, 576; and La deffence et illustration de la langue francoyse (du Bellay) as Pléiade manifesto, 137, 147; and Jacques Delille, 503–4; and Discours sur l’ode (Boileau), 284; and Joachim du Bellay, 113, 117, 130, 137–52, 158, 159; in the eighteenth century, 504; and Emaux et camées (Enamels and Cameos) (Gautier), 507; and L’enfer (Marot), 66; and feminine and masculine rhymes, 116, 127, 133, 480; and 1550 odes of Ronsard, 121–24; and Les fleurs du mal (Baudelaire), 472; and foreignness, 13, 133; and free verse, 4, 484, 510; French language as vehicle for, 23, 68, 140; and Fureur et mystère (Char), 565; and genres, 116, 122–23; and geometric pri
nciples of the Moderns, 279–80; and Guillaume de Lorris, 138; and heroic register, 123; and heroic verse, 4, 126, 127, 134; and Homeric and Virgilian epic, 123; and imitation of the poets of Greco-Roman antiquity, 138, 140; and imperial expansion, 140, 146; and impressionism, 491; and Institution for Charles IX, 133; and Jadis et naguère (Long Ago and Not So Long Ago) (Verlaine), 478–79; and Les jardins, ou l’art d’embellir les paysages (Gardens, or the Art of Embellishing the Landscape), 503–4; and Jean de Meun, 138; and Louise Labé, 3, 29, 117; and Etienne de La Boétie, 160; and La Fontaine, 252; and love poetry, 124, 126, 128, 559, 569–70; and lyric poetry, 113, 116, 125; and Malherbe, 122, 125; and Stephane Mallarmé, 4, 13, 122, 128, 495–503; and Marguerite de Navarre, 59–61, 91–92; and Clement Marot, 4, 65–67, 113–14, 117, 150–51; and Méditations poétiques (Lamartine), 503, 504; and metaphor, 508; and military might and expansion, 140, 143; modern developments in, 5, 471; and modernism, 491, 554–73; and morality, 472, 477; and music, 127, 128, 479, 505; and national cadence, 127; and the nineteenth century, 27; and notion of breathing, 569; and Occitan troubadour poetry, 16; and odes, 113–17, 121, 123, 124–25, 126; and “On Some Motifs in Baudelaire” (Benjamin), 524–25; and Parnassians, 507, 583; and pastoral poems, 118–19; and Peletier’s Oeuvres poétiques, 120; and Petrarch, 4, 69, 117, 122, 123, 148–49; and Petrarchan sonnet, 148–49, 500; and Constance Pipelet’s poems on men and marriage, 335; and Pléiade poets, 4, 29, 43, 68, 69, 137–38, 139; and “Poème sur le désastre de Lisbonne” (“Poem on the Lisbon Disaster”) (Voltaire), 297; and poem “Le siècle de Louis Le Grand” (Perrault), 270; and poems of Marguerite de Navarre, 59–61, 64–65, 92, 97, 101; and poem “The Man of the World” (Voltaire), 301; and poetic forms, 68–69, 116, 123, 139, 149; and poetic meters, 36, 116, 126, 127, 128, 129, 130, 131, 134, 151; and poetics as cultivation, 142–43; and poetic sense, 44, 121; and poetry of praise, 138; and poet’s role, 28, 29, 113–14, 116–17, 264, 506–8; political, 132; and prose poem, 4, 10, 13, 476–77, 489, 490, 508, 509, 570; and prose writers, 504; prosodic forms of, 3, 4, 5, 116, 123; in Provençal, 149; and Quarrel of the Ancients and the Moderns, 277; and rejets, 481–82; and the Renaissance, 151, 152; rhythmic forms of, 3, 121, 130, 554; and Arthur Rimbaud, 4, 155, 485–92; and rising status of France, 138; and role of the poet, 503; and Pierre de Ronsard, 113, 114, 115–35, 137, 138; and Ronsard’s golden-age renewal, 113, 117, 121, 129; and Ronsard’s poetry, 158, 159; and Maurice Scève, 3; and series of rivalries, 139–44; and the sixteenth century, 138; and sonnets, 4, 68–69, 121–24, 126, 127, 128, 130, 131, 132, 134, 139, 148–51, 206; and Le spleen de Paris (Baudelaire), 441, 476–77; and the sublime, 283–86, 501; and surrealism, 509, 554–62; and symbolism, 491; and syntax, typography, and page layout, 5; and Le temple de Cupido (Marot), 66–67; and translation, 127, 133; and troubadour poetry, 16, 117; and truth, 511; and the unconscious, 13; and the vagabond consciousness, 10; and Paul Valery, 2, 3, 18–19, 123, 509; and Vauclusian region, 564–65; and Paul Verlaine, 4, 123, 478–84; and vernacular, 113–14, 141; and versification, 5, 116, 122, 123, 126, 127, 133–34; and vers impair, 478–80, 492n4; and voice, 482–83; and women writers, 29, 91. See also epic poems; La Fontaine, Jean de; Marguerite de Navarre; national literature; Quarrel of the Ancients and the Moderns; Ronsard, Pierre de; Valéry, Paul
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