Speroni, Sperone, 147, 148
Spinoza, Baruch, 173, 182, 187
spleen de Paris, Le (Baudelaire), 476–77, 508
Staël, Mme Germaine de: and Bonaparte’s creation of nobility, 420; and Considerations sur les principaux événements de la Révolution française, 333; and the Coppet group, 332–33; as a cosmopolitan, 343; and De la littérature (On Literature), 332; and De l’Allemagne (On Germany), 12, 332; and De l’influence des passions sur le bonheur de l’individu et des nations, 333; and Delphine, 342; and early life in Paris, 332; and economic and social prejudice, exploitation, and inequalities, 347; emotions in work of, 333–34; as an exile from France, 332–33; and First Romanticism, 440; and husband’s diplomatic station, 334; and influence of political writings, 333–34; and letter writing, 338; and novel Corinne, ou l’Italie, 330, 333; and painting Corinne au Cap Misène (Corinne at Cape Misenum) by Gérard, 330, 331–32; parents of, 332; and portrayal of as Corinne, 331–32; and Réflexions sur le procès de la reine (Thoughts on the Queen’s Trial), 333–34
state: and authors’ copyrights, 28; and black republic of Haiti, 585–86; and Caribbean islanders’ choice regarding government, 579; and censorship, 26, 36, 37–38, 351; and centralized state formation, 8, 22; and Aimé Césaire representing Martinique, 578; and the comte d’Argenson, 372–73; and condemnation of comedies, authors, and actors, 355, 372–73; and cultural power, 11, 21–22; and dangers of royal patronage, 26; and different governmental systems, 419, 433, 548, 585; and the divine right of kings, 21–22; and essay “Of the Useful and the Honorable” (Montaigne), 165; expansion of, 138; as following empire, 166; and freedom of speech, 37–38; French as official language of, 138; and French Revolution, 419; and Haitian revolution, 585; and Italian republics, 445; and Lamartine as minister of foreign affairs, 505–6; and laws covering sedition, obscenity, or slander, 38; and liberties, 178; and literary trials, 10, 37–38, 462, 463, 464–66, 468; and Napoleon III’s Second Empire, 466; and national literary culture, 12–13, 25–26; and nation-state, 11, 113; and new democracies, 580, 586; and newly independent Senegal, 646; and political interests of in poetry, 139; and printing, 26; and rebirth of culture of antiquity, 137, 138; and the Reign of Terror, 505; and relationship with church, 91; and relationship with literature, 42, 122, 134, 138, 139, 470; and republican democracy, 535; and republicanism, 505–6, 551; and revolution of 1848, 470; and revolution replacing the Bourbons, 432–33; and rise of Napoleon, 419, 420–21; and Ronsard’s poetry, 134; and secular pleasures, 178; and situation after decolonization, 580, 587; in the sixteenth century, 138, 139; and spread of Luther’s ideas, 36; and Stalin’s policies, 546; and support of writers, 28; and La tragédie du roi Christophe (Césaire), 585–86; and well-ordered society, 132. See also monarchy
Steiner, George, 191, 192
Stendhal, Frédéric de, 9; and attachment to Italian medieval culture, 445; and biography of Napoleon, 421, 422; and character Julien’s infatuation with Napoleonic example, 421–26; and classical imitation contrasted with imagination, 444–45; and French society, 419, 431, 433, 444; and importance of appearances, 429; and importance of Paris, 415; and marriage to noble heiresses for characters, 417; and the past, 445–46; and promotion of the present, 446; in Proust’s society columns, 516; and Racine, 205; and realism, 426; and rise of self-made men, 418; and Romantic manifesto Racine and Shakespeare, 190, 191, 444, 445; and Le rouge et le noir (The Red and the Black), 415; and the social world, 10, 424
Strachey, Lytton, 2, 6
Supplément au voyage de Bougainville (Diderot), 3, 295
surrealism: and Guillaume Apollinaire, 510, 554; and automatic writing, 558, 571; and Samuel Beckett, 629; and André Breton, 5, 13, 511, 536, 554–62, 565, 566, 571; and Caribbean plantation culture, 583; and Césaire’s poetry, 576, 584; and René Char, 5, 554, 561, 563; and Dada, 554, 558, 560; and Salvador Dalí, 560; and Desnos’s dream trances, 558, 560; and dreams, 41, 556–57, 558, 560; and first Surrealist Manifesto, 558, 561; and Freudian unconsciousness, 509; and imagination, 556–57, 558, 566; and importance of encounter and creation, 561–62; and importance of place names, 561; and the irrational, 558, 560; and Lautreamont, 554; and madness, 555, 556; and the marvelous, 557, 558; and merging of binaries, 557–58; and painting, 562; and passion, 556, 557; and poetic theory, 567; and poetry, 4, 509, 554, 557, 558–60; project of, 554, 562; and Rimbaud, 554; and Sartre’s analysis, 630; second manifesto of, 562, 571; and struggles of the avantgarde, 440
symbolism: aspects of, 484; and Charles Baudelaire, 477, 491; and literary criticism, 41; and Arthur Rimbaud, 486, 491; and Paul Verlaine, 484, 491
Synge, John Millington, 616, 618, 619
Tartuffe (Molière): banning of, 180; and deus ex machina device, 180; and Dorine, 353; and hypocrisy, 178, 179, 181, 423; and king as God’s surrogate, 179–80; and Louis XIV, 178–80; and Molière’s vision, 175, 189; plot of, 178–79; political stake of, 178, 179; public controversy over, 287; and religion, 178; and vraisemblance (verisimilitude), 180; and world of Molière’s time, 188
theater: and actors, 173–74, 355, 362, 437, 589; and alexandrine verse form, 190, 205–6; and Les amazones (Du Bocage), 341; and Amphitryon, 184; and Aristophanes’s Clouds, 81; and Aristotelian theory of mimesis (imitation), 171; audience of, 442, 443; and The Barber of Seville (Beaumarchais), 361–62; and Samuel Beckett, 183; and bienséance (seemliness), 172; and Leonard Bernstein’s musical Candide, 291; and Le bourgeois gentilhomme (The Would-be Gentleman), 188–89; and bourgeoisie, 178, 180; and Cartesian mechanism, 173; and censorship, 351–52, 443–44; and Césaire’s politically engaged plays, 584, 585, 586–87, 588; and Isabelle de Charrière’s plays, 344; and Chatterton (Vigny), 506; for children, 337–38; and Le Cid (Corneille), 172, 174–75; and claques, 437; and class, 351, 356, 442, 443; and classical rules, 442–43; and classical theater, 43, 80–81, 171–72, 173, 190–94, 199; and the Comédie Française, 334, 362, 365, 380, 383, 436, 441–42, 586; and comedy, 44, 80–81, 173–74, 184–85, 191–92, 202, 204, 351–69; and comedy of character, 184–85; and commedia dell’arte, 174, 352, 621; and Critique de l’école des femmes (The Critique of the School for Wives) (Moliere), 175, 177; and Cyrano de Bergerac (Rostand), 27; and destiny, 193–94, 205; and deus ex machina device, 172, 180; and divine agency, 192, 194; and divisio, 81; and Don Juan (Molière), 175, 187, 188; and dramatic action, 184–85, 188, 361, 597; and L’école des femmes (The School for Wives) (Molière), 175–77, 185; and emotions, 198, 200–2, 207–9, 360–61; and enjambment, 442; and French opera, 191–92; and Félicité de Genlis, 337–38; and George Dandin, 184; and guilt, 205; and heroic characters, 200–2; and Hippolyte (Gilbert), 197; and Hippolytus (Euripides), 195; and Victor Hugo, 3, 10; and Hugo’s Hernani, 8, 436–38, 446; and Hugo’s Romantic dramas, 437–38; and human nature, 21, 181; and human will, 193–94; and hypocrisy, 178, 179, 180–81; and identification, 202, 204, 206; and immorality, 352; and L’impromptu de Versailles (The Versailles Impromptu), 177–78; and indecency, 77–78; and Italian and Spanish influence, 12; and Le malade imaginaire (The Imaginary Invalid), 188–89; as a male domain, 31; and The Marriage of Figaro (Beaumarchais), 362–69; and melodrama, 442; morality of, 175–76; and Le misanthrope (Molière), 175, 184–88; and obscenity, 177; and passions, 176, 190, 191, 192–97, 201, 202, 203–7; and play Les philosophes (Palissot), 380; and play Lorenzaccio (Musset), 440; and plays of Marguerite de Navarre, 92; and plays’ scripts, 174; and playwrights, 21, 25, 26, 171, 172, 173, 191, 193, 198, 352, 437; and poetic practice, 199–200; popularity of, 27, 353; and principle of immanence, 172–73; and professionalism, 173–74; and the professional stage, 199–200; and psychological dimension, 205; and Mark Ravenhill’s Candide, 291; and realism, 191; and recognition plots, 198; and religion, 175–176, 182–84, 192–95, 196; and role playing, 589; and royal edit of 1643, 176; and Royal Shakespeare Company, 291; and Ruy Blas (Hugo), 443; and Une saison au Congo (A Season in the Congo) (Césaire), 587; and secularism, 173, 178, 179–80, 182; and sense of nature, 171–72; and se
venteenth-century Christian theatergoers, 192; seventeenth-century theory of, 199, 207; and sex, 175, 176, 177, 185, 201; and Shakespeare’s plays, 152; and speaking in Phèdre (Racine), 195–98; and symbolist plays, 618; and Tartuffe (Molière), 175, 178, 188, 380; and theory of comedy, 174–75, 188; and tragedy, 44, 80–81, 132, 171–75, 191–92, 199–200, 206–9, 282, 597; and tragicomedy, 443; and transfer of emotion, 207, 282; and twentieth-century productions, 205; and unities, 39, 171, 172, 199; and Jean Vilar’s Théâtre nationale populaire, 34; and violence, 199, 207; and virtue, 177, 179; and vraisemblance (verisimilitude), 39, 171, 172, 173, 174–75, 180; and widows, 356–57; and work of Aristotle and Horace, 192; and Zamore et Mirza (Gouges), 334. See also classicism; drama; Hugo, Victor; Shakespeare, William
Tom Jones (Fielding), 307–8
tragedy: and alexandrine verse form, 205–6; and ancient tragic sense of life, 191; and Aristotle, 224, 442–43; and catharsis, 207; and Le Cid (Corneille) as problematic, 172; and classical French theater, 43, 171, 190–201, 202; classical tragedy, 270–71, 294; vs. comedy, 175; and Pierre Corneille’s Medea, 285; “death of,” 192; and “De la poésie dramatique” (Diderot), 286; and destiny, 193–94, 205; and divisio, 80, 81; and Anne-Marie Du Bocage, 341; and early modern period, 7, 194; and emotions, 198, 200–201, 202, 207, 208; and Et les chiens se taisent (And the Dogs Were Silent) (Césaire), 584; and Euripides’s plot, 192–93; and “The Future of Tragedy” (Camus), 597; and Greek mythology, 192–95, 205; and Greek tragedies, 80, 81, 194–99, 205; and guilt, 205; and heroic characters, 174–75, 193, 194–95, 198, 204–5, 207; and hierarchy of genres, 39; and Hippolyte (Gilbert), 197; and Hippolytus (Euripides), 195; and historical subject matter, 192, 586; and Hugo’s Hernani, 436; and identification, 202, 204, 207, 208; and immorality of classical tragedy, 287; and the individual, 207; and modern literature, 207; and modern rules, 190–91; and modern stage, 171, 173; and Moliere’s comedies, 191; morality of, 176; and naturalism, 173, 191; and neoclassicists, 437; and the nineteenth century, 44, 436, 437; passions of, 282; and performance, 127; and Phèdre (Racine), 7, 191–98; and Poetics (Aristotle), 442–43; politics of, 132; and Racine, 204–9, 536; and Pierre de Ronsard, 123; royal permission for, 362; and Sartre’s Les mouches, 597; and secularism, 192; and the seventeenth century, 8, 171, 172, 190, 191–92; and sexuality, 201; theory of, 174–75; and tragic action, 207; and La tragédie du roi Christophe (Césaire), 586; and tragic monologue, 206; and twentieth-century productions, 205; and vraisemblance (verisimilitude), 171, 172, 225; and Western tradition, 207
travel writing: and antiquity, 250; and “Des Cannibales” (Montaigne), 3, 257; and conquest, 257; and cultural encounters, 251, 257, 266; and Cyrano de Bergerac, 250–54, 256, 258, 259, 260–61, 265–66; and drive of curiosity and “fantasy,” 255; and early science fiction, 260–61; in the eighteenth century, 295; and Les Etats et Empires de la Lune (The States and Empires of the Moon), 252–54; and Les Etats et Empires du Soleil (The States and Empires of the Sun), 252–54; and explorer narratives, 256–59; and “galant” travel writing, 261–62; and generic hybridity, 266; as a genre, 253–54, 256, 259, 260; and History of a Voyage to the Land of Brazil (Léry), 158, 256; and Homer’s Odysseus, 261; and La Fontaine, 250, 251, 252, 254–56, 258–266; and maxim ambulo ergo sum, 250, 254, 261, 266; and Nouveaux mémoires pour servir à l’histoire des Cacouacs (Moureau), 379; and the “Other,” 12, 253, 257, 263, 266; philosophical questions of, 251, 253, 261–66; political, religious, and scholarly functions of, 256–57, 260, 266; and political power, 265–66; and polyphony, 266; and prejudices, 3; and “primitive” peoples, 395; and problems of explorer narratives, 258–59; and relativity of customs and beliefs, 257, 265, 295; and the seventeenth century, 229, 250–66; and Supplément au voyage de Bougainville (Diderot), 3, 295; and transmission of knowledge, 259, 260; and travel as metaphor, 295; and Travel Journal (Montaigne), 160; and travelogues of expeditions, 256–57, 266; and Voltaire’s Candide, 7; and Voyage d’Encausse (Chapelle and Bachaumont), 261–62
Trotsky, Leon: and criticism of Les conquérants (Malraux), 534, 549; and political novels, 549, 550, 551; and presence in France, 535; and revolutionary vision, 546, 552; and Voyage au bout de la nuit (Céline), 626
Tzara, Tristan, 558, 560, 571
United States: and bestsellers, 31–32; René Char’s influence in, 563; and Assia Djebar, 645; and “littérature négro-africaine,” 577; and novelists of the 1930s, 518; and the twentieth century, 22; and Voyage au bout de la nuit (Céline), 542
Valery, Paul: cultural role of, 123; and Eupalinos, 601, 602; and “On Some Motifs in Baudelaire” (Benjamin), 524–525; and poem “Les pas,” 509; and reading, 2, 18–19; and the twentieth century, 3
Vergne, Marie-Madeleine Pioche de La. See Lafayette, Madame de
Verlaine, Paul: and admiration for Marceline Desbordes-Valmore, 504; and articles in L’Art, 478; and consciousness, 483, 484, 485; and cultivation of vers impair, 478–80; and dreams, synesthesia, and silence, 484; and enumeration, 484; and feminine and masculine rhymes, 480; as an impressionist, 483; and Jadis et naguère (Long Ago and Not So Long Ago), 478–79, 484; and letter from Mallarme, 503; and literary movements, 491; and musical mode of expression, 623; and poetry, 4, 10, 123, 470, 478–85; and rejets, 481–82; religion of, 484, 485; and Rimbaud, 484; and self-pity, 478, 484; and vagabond consciousness, 10; and voice, 482–83
Vigny, Alfred de, 504, 505, 506
Virgil, 66, 73, 163, 503, 504
Voltaire: and birthplace in Paris, 292; and Candide, 292, 294, 297–300, 308–9; career of, 26, 272, 294; and Catherine the Great, 382; celebrity of, 292, 294, 371; and Contes philosophiques, 40; and criticism of Rousseau, 397, 398, 400–401; cultural role of, 123, 244; death of, 292, 294, 402; and Jacques Delille, 503; and different genres, 294; and divine designer or creator, 297; and Encyclopédie entry “Men of Letters,” 377; and the ethics of luxury, 301–2; as an exile, 9, 26; and female correspondents, 339; and freethinking, 304; and intelligent design, 304–5; and Leibnizian optimism, 309; and Lettres philosophiques, 294, 295; and Lettres sur les Anglais, 12; and Mme du Châtelet, 30; narration of, 308; and national classics, 9; in Le neveu de Rameau (Diderot), 387; original
name of, 294; and picaresque narrative, 7; and play Le café ou l’Ecossaise, 380–81; and play Les philosophes (Palissot), 380; and “Poème sur le désastre de Lisbonne” (“Poem on the Lisbon Disaster”), 297; and poem “The Man of the World,” 301; and problem of evil, 297–98, 309; and Providence, 297, 298, 306; public funeral of, 9–10; and reason, 505; and residence at the Château de Ferney, 294; and Romanticism, 438; secular world-view of, 298; and size of cultured public of Paris, 32; and skepticism, 294, 309; and social codes of men of letters, 384; and travels in Germany, 294; and travel writing, 7; writings of, 294, 381
Voyage au bout de la nuit (Céline): and American Lola, 542; and capitalism, 550; and class, 543, 549, 550; and colonialism, 550; and context’s relationship with text, 534; and death, 549; and emotions, 537, 541; and failure to win Prix Goncourt, 537; and French soldier Leon Robinson, 542, 543; leftist critiques of, 549–550, 552; as model for Beckett, 626; and narrator Ferdinand Bardamu, 539, 541–43, 549; nihilist vision of, 541; and parallel with Bosch and Brueghel paintings, 548–49; and poverty, 542; publishing of, 537–39; suffering described in, 549, 550; as a tragic work, 538–39; and use of spoken French in novel, 539, 541, 551, 631; and war, 541–42, 550
Voyage d’Encausse (Chapelle and Bachaumont), 261–62
voyages de la Nouvelle France occidentale, dicte Canada, Les (Voyages to New France) (Champlain), 256
vraisemblance (verisimilitude), 39, 171, 172, 173; and Don Juan (Moliere), 183–84; and Les liaisons dangereuses (Laclos), 343; and naturalism, 174–75; and the nouvelle historique, 216; and novels, 225; and Tartuffe (Molière), 180; and tragedy, 225
Wars of Religion: and France, 51, 156–57; and Montaigne, 7, 160, 161, 166; and nouvelle historique, 216; and Rabelais, 7; and Ronsard’s poetry, 132–33; and St. Bartholomew’s Day m
assacre, 132, 157; and wars between Protestants and Catholics, 156–57, 215; and Western history, 85
Williams, Raymond, 16–17, 207
women’s writing: and anonymous publishing of works, 217–18, 333, 345, 347; and antiquity, 330; anxiety about propriety of, 217–18; and Marquerite Audoux, 31; and autonomy, 327–28; and black women, 347; and the boudoir or bedroom, 327; and the Caquets de l’accouchée, 221; and Isabelle de Charrière, 327, 331, 338, 342, 343–45; and Christine de Pizan’s defense of women, 29; and Colette, 7, 30, 535; and La Colombiade ou la foi portée au Nouveau Monde (Du Bocage), 341; and concerns of Djebar, 650; and customs and cultures, 346; and Déclaration des droits de la femme et de la citoyenne (Gouges), 334; and denunciation of women writers, 335; and Marceline Desbordes-Valmore, 504; and Catherine Des Roches, 68; and Anne-Marie Du Bocage, 341; and L’école des filles, 222; and economic and social prejudice, exploitation, and inequalities, 347; and écriture feminine, 31; and George Eliot, 518; and Enlightenment women, 330–48; and Louise d’Epinay, 337; and the epistolary novel, 327–328, 342–343, 346–347; and Epître aux femmes (Epistle to women) (Pipelet), 335; and essays on Rousseau by Mme de Staël, 332; and female authors’ pay, 346; and female mysticism, 61; and the female voice, 330; and feminism, 31, 68, 109; and Elisabeth Ferrand, 345; and Félicité de Genlis, 337–38; and Olympe de Gouges, 334–35; and Françoise de Graffigny, 327–28, 346, 347; and Graffigny’s novel about Peruvian princess Zilia, 346–47; and Hellenist Anne Dacier, 30; and the Heptameron (Marguerite de Navarre), 101, 102, 109; and hostile public opinion, 30–31, 345; and Mme de Lafayette, 30, 101; and Louise Labé, 149; and Marie Leprince de Beaumont’s “Magasins,” 335–37; and Julie de Lespinasse, 339; and letter writing, 29, 338–39, 341; and Lettres neuchâteloises (Letters from Neuchatel) (Charrière), 345; and Lettres trouvées dans les portefeuilles d’emigrés (Charrière), 344; and love letters of Mme de Villedieu, 218; and Marguerite de Navarre, 60–61, 101–2, 109; and Mémoire de Madame de Valmont (Gouges), 334; and men developing women’s ideas, 345; and Lady Mary Montagu’s Turkish letters, 338; and mythology, 330, 336; and La naissance du jour (Break of Day) (Colette), 529; and Le noble (Charrière), 344; and novel “Le triomphe de la verité ou histoire de M. de La Villete (Leprince de Beaumont), 337; and Ourika (Duras), 347; and poet Constance Pipelet, 335; and Pointed Roofs (Richardson), 517; and political and societal questions, 344–45; and post-1945 intellectual writers, 31; and La Princesse de Clevès (Lafayette), 101–2, 109; and the public sphere, 348; and publishing, 44, 101, 345–47; and querelles des femmes, 29; readership of, 347; and realistic, naturalistic tradition, 31; and Marie-Jeanne Riccoboni, 342–44; salon hostess Marie du Deffand, 339; and George Sand’s Une conspiration en 1537, 440; and Mlle de Scudéry’s sentimental romance, 29–31; and sentimental novel, 327; and the short nouvelle, 30; and social prejudice, 345; and Théroigne de Méricourt, 334–35; and translation, 336, 338; and translator Steck-Guichelin, 345; and women as foreigners, 347; and women in pedagogy, 335–37, 338; and women’s condition in society, 344–45; and women’s conversation, 220–23; and The Women’s Decameron (Voznesenskaya), 109; and women’s fiction, 45, 327–28; and women’s rights, 30, 334–35; and women writers of the nouvelle historique, 216; and work of Assia Djebar, 634–50; and work of Mme de Staël, 330–34; and Zamore et Mirza (Gouges), 334
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