A Source Book in Chinese Philosophy

by Wing-Tsit Chan

  Hsün Tzu exerted far greater influence up through the Han period (206 b.c.–a.d. 220) than did Mencius. For one thing, both psychology and logic advanced greatly in him, but not in Mencius. His essay on terminology is one of the few Chinese treatises on the subject. In his naturalistic interpretation of Heaven, he came close to Taoism. And in his advocation of control, he contributed to the authoritarianism that resulted in the dictatorship of the Ch’in (221–206 b.c.). As a matter of fact, two of the ministers of the Ch’in, Han Fei (d. 233 b.c.)2 and Li Ssu (d. 208 b.c.), were his pupils. His influence was extensive in the Han. However, since then he was largely neglected until the nineteenth century. Mencius rather than he was regarded as in the direct line of transmission from Confucius. No commentaries were written on his work until the ninth century, and very few since then. His work was not elevated to the position of a Confucian Classic. Was he too “tough-minded” for the Chinese, who preferred “tender-minded” Mencius? Was he too unorthodox a Confucianist? Or has he been blamed for the Ch’in dictatorship? All these questions aside, because of his naturalism, his realism, his emphasis on logic, his belief in progress, his stress on law, and his sound criticisms of the various philosophical schools, he has a special attraction for the modern Chinese.

  Hsün Tzu, also called Hsün Ch’ing and Hsün K’uang, was a native of Chao.3 When he was fifty he traveled to Ch’i,4 where scholars congregated at the time. He was the most eminent of them all. Three times he was honored as the officer for the sacrificial wine offering. Eventually some people slandered him, and he went to Ch’u, where he became a magistrate. Later he lost his position but stayed there and taught until he died. His dates are still subjects for debate, but most scholars agreed that he flourished in the six decades between 298 and 238 b.c. He was contemporaneous with Mencius but there is no evidence that the two ever met. Unlike the Book of Mencius, which consists of dialogues, Hsün Tzu’s works are made up of self-contained essays on various subjects. The following translations are the complete chapters on Nature and human nature, and parts from the chapter on the rectification of names. These are the three most philosophical questions discussed by him.

  THE HSÜN TZU5

  1. On Nature (ch. 17)

  Nature (T’ien, Heaven) operates with constant regularity. It does not exist for the sake of (sage-emperor) Yao6 nor does it cease to exist because of (wicked king) Chieh.7 Respond to it with peace and order, and good fortune will result. Respond to it with disorder, and disaster will follow. If the foundations of living (i.e., agriculture and sericulture) are strengthened and are economically used, then Nature cannot bring impoverishment. If people’s nourishment is sufficient and their labor in keeping with the seasons, then Nature cannot inflict sickness. If the Way is cultivated8 without deviation, then Nature cannot cause misfortune. Therefore flood and drought cannot cause a famine, extreme cold or heat cannot cause illness, and evil spiritual beings cannot cause misfortune. But if the foundations of living are neglected and used extravagantly, then Nature cannot make the country rich. If there is meager nourishment and little work, then Nature cannot enable the people to be preserved. If people violate the Way and act foolishly, then Nature cannot give them good fortune. There will be famine before flood or drought approaches, there will be sickness before the thrust of extreme cold or heat, and there will be misfortune before the approach of evil spirits. What the [people in these circumstances] receive from the season (natural factors) is the same as people receive in a period of peace and order and yet the calamities are different from what prevails in the period of peace and order. This cannot be blamed on Heaven; this is how the Way works. Therefore one who understands the distinctive functions of Heaven and man may be called a perfect man.

  Comment. Hsün Tzu’s concept of Heaven is obviously closer to the Tao of the Taoists than to the T’ien (Heaven) of Confucius and Mencius. Their T’ien is still purposive, and the source and ultimate control of man’s destiny, but Hsün Tzu’s T’ien is purely Nature so that in most cases the word has to be translated as Nature rather than as Heaven. The marvelous thing is that while he accepted the Taoists’ naturalistic view, he was not influenced by their intuitionism and mysticism. In Hsün Tzu, we have rationalism and empiricism instead.

  To accomplish without any action and to obtain without effort,9 this is what is meant by the office of Heaven. This being the case, although the Way of Heaven is deep, the perfect man does not deliberate over it. Although it is great, he does not devote any effort to it. And although it is refined, he does not scrutinize it. This is what is meant by not competing with Heaven. Heaven has its seasons, earth has its wealth, and man has his government. This is how they are able to form a triad.10 To neglect (human activities) which constitute man’s part in the triad and put one’s hope in those with which he forms a triad is indeed a mistake.

  The fixed stars rotate in succession, the sun and moon shine alternately, the four seasons follow one another, yin (passive cosmic force) and yang (active cosmic force) effect their great transformations, and the wind and rain spread over all things. Each of the ten thousand things attains its harmony, and thus grows. Each obtains its nourishment, and thus achieves full development. We do not see their activities but we do see their results. This is what is called spirit. We all know how they attain their full development but none knows that such a process is invisible. This is called Heaven. The sage, however, does not seek to know Heaven. When the office of Heaven is established and the work of Heaven is done, the body will be provided and the spirit born, and the feelings of like, dislike, pleasure, anger, sorrow, and joy embodied. These are called the natural feelings. The ear, the eye, the nose, the mouth, and the body are, each in its own way, able to respond to external things, and cannot be interchanged. These are called natural organs. The heart (mind) occupies the cavity in the center to control the five organs. This is called the natural ruler. To plan and use what is not of one’s kind to nourish one’s kind—this is called natural nourishment. To act in accord with (the principle and nature of) one’s own kind means happiness, and to act contrary to (the principle and nature of) one’s own kind means calamity. This is called natural government. To darken one’s natural ruler, to confuse the natural organs, to abandon natural nourishment, to act contrary to the natural government, and to violate the natural feelings so as to destroy the work of Nature—this is called great misfortune. The sage purifies his natural ruler, rectifies his natural organs, sufficiently provides for his natural nourishment, follows the natural government, and nourishes his natural feelings so as to bring to completion the work of Nature. In this way he knows what to do and what not to do. Thus he rules heaven and earth and directs the ten thousand things. His actions are all well regulated, his nourishment all well adapted, and his life is not injured—this is called knowing Nature.

  Therefore great skill consists in not doing certain things, and great wisdom consists in not deliberating over certain things. What is to be noted about heaven are its visible phenomena, which can help us to foretell things. What is to be noted about earth are its suitable aspects, which can be used for growing things. What is to be noted about the four seasons are their course and their distinctive characteristics, according to which we can manage our affairs. And what is to be noted about yin and yang is their revelation, on the basis of which we can regulate things. The official (astronomer) adheres to [the phenomena of] heaven. As to the sage himself, he adheres to the Way.

  Comment. Most ancient Confucianists either emphasized humanity (jen) and wisdom equally or stressed humanity. Hsün Tzu, however, emphasizes wisdom. Obviously, inborn humanity has no room in his theory of the innate evil nature of man. As an acquired virtue, humanity is valued. But being a tough-minded realist, he relies on wisdom rather than such an idealistic quality as humanity.

  Are order and chaos due to heaven? I say: The sun, the moon, the stars, planets, and auspicious periods of the calendar were the same in the time of (sage-king) Yü as in that of (wicked
king) Chieh.11 Yet Yü brought about order while Chieh brought about chaos. Order and chaos are not due to heaven. Are they due to the seasons? I say: Plants multiply, develop, flourish, and mature in spring and summer. They are collected and stored in the fall and winter. This is also the same at the times of Yü and Chieh. Yet Yü brought about order while Chieh brought about chaos. Order and chaos are not due to the seasons. Are they due to the earth? I say: When a plant is planted in a suitable place, it will grow. When it is planted in an unsuitable place, it will die. This is also the same at the times of Yü and Chieh. Yet Yü brought about order while Chieh brought about chaos. Order and chaos are not due to the earth. The Book of Odes says, “Heaven made the high hills. King T’ai extended and cultivated them. He did the pioneering work. (His son) King Wen brought to them peace and prosperity.”12 This is the meaning.

  Heaven does not give up the winter because people dislike cold. Earth does not give up its expanse because people dislike distance. The superior man does not give up good conduct because the inferior man rails against him. Heaven has a constant way of action, earth has a constant size, and the superior man has a constant personal demonstration of virtue. The superior man pursues the constant principle, but the inferior man calculates results. The Book of Odes says, “[If one makes no mistake about propriety and righteousness], why worry about people’s talk?”13 This is what I mean.

  The king of Ch’u had a thousand chariots following him—this is not wisdom. The superior man eats peas and drinks water—this is not stupidity. They do so because it is fitting to the circumstances.14 As to cultivating one’s will, to be earnest in one’s moral conduct, to be clear in one’s knowledge and deliberations, to live in this age but to set his mind on the ancients (as models), that depends on the person himself. Therefore the superior man is serious (ching)15 about what lies in himself and does not desire what comes from Heaven. The inferior man neglects what is in himself and desires what comes from Heaven. Because the superior man is serious about what is in himself and does not desire what comes from Heaven, he progresses every day. Because the inferior man neglects what is in himself and desires what comes from Heaven, he retrogresses every day. The reason why the superior man progresses daily and the inferior man retrogresses daily is the same. Here lies the reason for the great difference between the superior man and the inferior man.

  When stars fall or trees make a [strange] noise, all people in the state are afraid and ask, “Why?” I reply: There is no need to ask why. These are changes of heaven and earth, the transformation of yin and yang, and rare occurrences. It is all right to marvel at them, but wrong to fear them. For there has been no age that has not had16 the experience of eclipses of the sun and moon, unreasonable rain or wind, or occasional17 appearance of strange stars. If the ruler is enlightened and the government peaceful, even if all of these things happen at the same time, they would do no harm. If the ruler is unenlightened and the government follows a dangerous course, even if [only] one of them occurs, it would do no good. For the falling of stars and the noise of trees are the changes of heaven and earth, the transformations of yin and yang, and rare occurrences. It is all right to marvel at them, but wrong to fear them.

  Of things that have happened, human portents are the most to be feared. To plough roughly so as to injure the crops, to hoe improperly so as to miss the weed, and to follow a dangerous course in government so as the lose the support to the people, with the result that the fields are full of weeds, the harvest is bad, the price of grain goes up, people starve, and there are dead bodies on the roads—these are what is meant by human portents. When governmental measures and orders are not clear or wise, when activities and handling of affairs are not timely, and when matters concerning the foundation of living are not attended to—these are what is meant by human portents. When propriety and righteousness are not cultivated, when the distinction between the inner (women’s) chamber and the outer (men’s) chamber is not kept, and when men and women become promiscuous, then father and son distrust each other, the ruler and the ruled will be in conflict and divided, and invasion and disaster will arrive at the same time—these are what is meant by human portents. Portents are born of chaos. When all the three kinds of portents pile upon one another, there will be no order or peace in the state. It is very simple to talk about these portents, but the calamities they bring are most terrible. If conscript labor is employed not at the proper season, [the suffering of the people will so disturb the equilibrium of nature that] cows and horses will breed each other and the six domestic animals will become apparitions.18 They may be marveled at but should not be feared. The Record says, “The classics do not talk about strange phenomena of the ten thousand things.”19 Useless discussions and unnecessary investigations are to be cast aside and not attended to. As to the righteousness between the ruler and minister, affection between father and son, and the distinctive functions between husband and wife, these should be daily cultivated without losing sight of them.

  When people pray for rain, it rains. Why? I say: There is no need to ask why. It is the same as when it rains when no one prays for it. When people try to save the sun or moon from being eclipsed, or when they pray for rain in a drought, or when they decide an important affair only after divination, they do so not because they believe they will get what they are after, but to use them as ornament (wen) to governmental measures. Hence the ruler intends them to be an ornament, but the common people think they are supernatural. It is good fortune to regard them as ornamental but it is evil fortune to regard them as supernatural.

  Comment. The influence of supernatural forces over man is completely ruled out by Hsün Tzu. What he called spirit is but cosmic change and evolution. To him, in religious sacrifice, whether there are really spiritual beings to receive them does not matter. The important thing is one’s attitude, especially sincerity, in the performance. Thus sacrifices are “ornaments,” or refined manifestation of an inner attitude.

  Of the things in heaven, none is brighter than the sun and moon. Of the things on earth, none is brighter than water and fire. Among things, none is brighter than pearls and jade. And among man’s virtues, none is brighter than propriety and righteousness. For if the sun and moon were not high, their brightness would not be glorious. If water or fire is not gathered in great quantity, its luster would not be extensive. If pearls and jade were not gleaming on the outside, kings and dukes would not consider them precious. If propriety and righteousness are not applied in the country, their accomplishments and fame would not shine. Therefore the destiny of man lies in Heaven,20 and the destiny of the state lies in propriety. The ruler who highly exalts propriety and honors the worthy will become a true king, the ruler who stresses law and loves the people will become a despot, the ruler who loves profit and often resorts to deceit will fall, and the ruler who schemes to obtain power, seeks to overthrow others, and is secretive and evil will perish completely.

  Instead of regarding Heaven as great and admiring it,

  Why not foster it as a thing and regulate it?

  Instead of obeying Heaven and singing praise to it,

  Why not control the Mandate of Heaven and use it?

  Instead of looking on the seasons and waiting for them,

  Why not respond to them and make use of them?

  Instead of letting things multiply by themselves,

  Why not exercise your ability to transform [and increase] them?

  Instead of thinking about things as things,

  Why not attend to them so you won’t lose them?

  Instead of admiring how things come into being,

  Why not do something to bring them to full development?

  Therefore to neglect human effort and admire Heaven is to miss the nature of things.

  Comment. Nowhere else in the history of Chinese thought is the idea of controlling nature so definite and so strong. It is a pity that this did not lead to a development of natural science. One explanation is that although Hsün Tzu
enjoyed great prestige in the Han dynasty, his theory of overcoming nature was not strong enough to compete with the prevalent doctrine of harmony of man and nature, which both Confucianism and Taoism promoted.

  The [moral principles] that have remained unchanged through the time of all kings are sufficient to be the central thread running through the Way. Things come and go, but if they are responded to according to this central thread, one will find that the principle runs through all without any disorder. He who does not know this central thread does not know how to respond to changing conditions. The essential nature of the central thread has never ceased to be. Chaos is the result of a wrong application of the central thread, whereas order is the result of a complete application of it. For what is considered good according to the Way, namely, the Mean, should be followed. What deviates from the Mean should not be done. To be mistaken will lead to great delusion. One who walks in water marks its depth. If the mark is not clear, he will fall into the water. He who governs the people marks the Way. If the mark is not clear, there will be chaos. Rules of propriety are marks. Without propriety, the world will be beclouded. When the world is beclouded, there will be great chaos. Only when the Way is always made clear, when the internal and external aspects are distinctly marked,21 and when what is manifest and what is hidden remain constant will the suffering of the people be removed.