A Source Book in Chinese Philosophy

by Wing-Tsit Chan

  “Those who dream of the banquet may weep the next morning, and those who dream of weeping may go out to hunt after dawn. When we dream we do not know that we are dreaming. In our dreams we may even interpret our dreams. Only after we are awake do we know we have dreamed. Finally there comes a great awakening, and then we know life is a great dream. But the stupid think they are awake all the time, and believe they know it distinctly. Are we (honorable) rulers? Are we (humble) shepherds? How vulgar! Both Confucius and you were dreaming. When I say you were dreaming, I am also dreaming. This way of talking may be called perfectly strange. If after ten thousand generations we could meet one great sage who can explain this, it would be like meeting him in as short a time as in a single morning or evening.

  “Suppose you and I argue. If you beat me instead of my beating you, are you really right and am I really wrong? If I beat you instead of your beating me, am I really right and are you really wrong? Or are we both partly right and partly wrong? Or are we both wholly right and wholly wrong? Since between us neither you nor I know which is right, others are naturally in the dark. Whom shall we ask to arbitrate? If we ask someone who agrees with you, since he has already agreed with you, how can he arbitrate? If we ask someone who agrees with me, since he has already agreed with me, how can he arbitrate? If we ask someone who disagrees with both you and me to arbitrate, since, he has already disagreed with you and me, how can he arbitrate? If we ask someone who agrees with both you and me to arbitrate, since he has already agreed with you and me, how can he arbitrate? Thus among you, me, and others, none knows which is right. Shall we wait for still others? The great variety of sounds are relative to each other just as much as they are not relative to each other. To harmonize them in the functioning of Nature43 and leave them in the process of infinite evolution is the way to complete our lifetime.”44

  “What is meant by harmonizing them with the functioning of Nature?”

  “We say this is right or wrong, and is so or is not so. If the right is really right, then the fact that it is different from the wrong leaves no room for argument. If what is so is really so, then the fact that it is different from what is not so leaves no room for argument. Forget the passage of time (life and death) and forget the distinction of right and wrong. Relax in the realm of the infinite and thus abide in the realm of the infinite.”

  The Shade asks the Shadow, “A little while ago you moved, and now you stop. A little while ago you sat down and now you stand up. Why this instability of purpose?”

  “Do I depend on something else to be this way?” answered the Shadow. “Does that something on which I depend also depend on something else? Do I depend on anything any more than a snake depends on its discarded scale or a cicada on its new wings? How can I tell why I am so or why I am not so?”

  Once I, Chuang Chou, dreamed that I was a butterfly and was happy as a butterfly. I was conscious that I was quite pleased with myself, but I did not know that I was Chou. Suddenly I awoke, and there I was, visibly Chou. I do not know whether it was Chou dreaming that he was a butterfly or the butterfly dreaming that it was Chou. Between Chou and the butterfly there must be some distinction. [But one may be the other.] This is called the transformation of things, (nhcc, 1:18a-48b)

  Comment. A beautiful story in itself, it is a complete rejection of the distinction between subject and object and between reality and unreality.

  B. The Great Teacher (ch. 6)

  He who knows the activities of Nature (T’ien, Heaven) and the activities of man is perfect. He who knows the activities of Nature lives according to Nature. He who knows the activities of man nourishes what he does not know with what he does know, thus completing his natural span of life and will not die prematurely half of the way. This is knowledge at its supreme greatness.

  However, there is some defect here. For knowledge depends on something to be correct, but what it depends on is uncertain and changeable. How do we know that what I call Nature is not really man and what I call man is not really Nature?

  Furthermore, there must be the pure man before there can be true knowledge. What is meant by a pure man? The pure man of old did not mind having little, did not brag about accomplishments, and did not scheme about things. If [the opportunity] had gone, he would not regret, and if he was in accord [with his lot in life] he did not feel satisfied with himself. Being of this character, he could scale heights without fear, enter water without getting wet, and go through fire without feeling hot. Such is the knowledge that can at last45 ascend to Tao.

  The pure man of old slept without dreams and awoke without anxiety. He ate without indulging in sweet tastes and breathed deep breaths. The pure man draws breaths from the great depths of his heels, the multitude only from their throats. People defeated (in argument) utter words as if to vomit, and those who indulge in many desires have very little of the secret of Nature.

  Comment. It is tempting to equate Chuang Tzu’s reference to breathing with Indian yoga. But there is a great deal of difference between them. What Chuang Tzu means is that we must go to the depth (the heels) of things. It is there that the “secret of Nature” (t’ien-chi) begins. By this secret is meant the secret operation of Nature, the way in which things spring forth. One should not try to get away from Nature but go to its depth. The idea of t’ien-chi has had a strong influence on Neo-Confucianists.46

  The pure man of old knew neither to love life nor to hate death. He did not rejoice in birth, nor did he resist death. Without any concern he came and without any concern he went, that was all. He did not forget his beginning nor seek his end. He accepted [his body] with pleasure, and forgetting [life and death], he returned to [the natural state]. He did not violate Tao with his mind, and he did not assist Nature with man. This is what is meant by a pure man.

  Comment. The doctrine of identifying life and death as one is not peculiar to Taoism, for it was common among several schools at Chuang Tzu’s time. The point to note is that Taoism never glorifies death, as it is sometimes mistakenly understood.

  Such being the pure man, his mind is perfectly at ease.47 His demeanor is natural. His forehead is broad. He is as cold as autumn but as warm as spring. His pleasure and anger are as natural as the four seasons. He is in accord with all things, and no one knows the limit thereof. Therefore the sage, in employing an army, can destroy a country without losing the affection of the people. His benefits may be extended to ten thousand generations without any [partial] love for any man.

  Therefore he who takes special delight in understanding things is not a sage. He who shows [special] affection [to anyone] is not a man of humanity (jen, love). He who calculates opportunity is not a worthy person. He who does not see through benefits and injuries is not a superior man. He who seeks fame and thus loses his own nature is not learned. And he who loses his own nature and thus misses the true way is not one who can have others do things for him. Such men as Hu Pu-chieh (who drowned himself rather than accept the throne from Yao), Wu Kuang (who also drowned himself instead of accepting the throne from T’ang), Po-i and Shu-ch’i (who, as citizens of the Shang, refused to eat the grains of the Chou and chose to starve to death), the viscount of Chi (who pretended to be mad and became a slave because the wicked King Chou did not accept his advice), Hsü Yü (a recluse who painted his body and pretended to be mad),48 Chi T’o (who drowned himself when he heard that Wu Kuang had declined the throne and King T’ang might offer it to him), and Shen-t’u Ti (of the Shang, who drowned himself),49 did things as others would have them do, took delight in what others would delight, and did not take delight in what would be delightful to themselves.

  The pure man of old was righteous50 but impartial, and humble but not subservient. He was naturally independent but not obstinate. His humility was manifest but not displayed. Smiling, he seemed to be happy. He acted as if he had to. His countenance improved further and further in richness, and his virtue rested more and more in the [highest good]. His efforts seemed to be those of the common people, b
ut his loftiness could not be restrained. Deep and profound, he seemed to be like a closed door (unfathomable). Without any attachment, he seemed to have forgotten what he said. He considered law as part of the nature [of government and not of his making], ceremonies as an aid [wanted by people themselves], knowledge as a [product of] time, and virtue as people’s observance. To regard law as part of the nature of government means to be broad-minded when it comes to killing. To regard ceremonies as an aid to people themselves means that they prevail in the world [like conventions]. To regard knowledge as a product of time means to respond to events as if they had to be. And to regard virtue as people’s observance means that it is comparable to the fact that anyone with two feet can climb a hill, but people think that a pure man makes diligent effort to do so. Therefore what he liked was one and what he did not like was also one. That which was one was one and that which was not one was also one. He who regards all things as one is a companion of Nature. He who does not regard all things as one is a companion of man. Neither Nature nor man should overcome the other. This is what is meant by a pure man.

  Life and death are due to fate (ming, destiny) and their constant succession like day and night is due to Nature, beyond the interference of man. They are the necessary character of things. There are those who regard Heaven as their father and love it with their whole person. How much more should they love what is more outstanding than Heaven [that is, self-transformation itself]?51 There are those who regard the ruler as superior to themselves and would sacrifice their lives for him. How much more should they sacrifice for what is more real than the ruler (Nature)?52

  When the springs are dried up, the fishes crowd together on the land. They moisten each other with the dampness around them and keep one another wet by their spittle. It is better for them to forget each other in rivers and lakes.53 Rather than praise (sage-emperor) Yao and condemn (wicked king) Chieh,54 it is better to forget both and to transform their ways [which give rise to conventional standards of right and wrong].55

  The universe gives me my body so I may be carried, my life so I may toil, my old age so I may repose, and my death so I may rest. To regard life as good is the way to regard death as good. A boat may be hidden in a creek or a mountain in a lake. These may be said to be safe enough. But at midnight a strong man may come and carry it away on his back. An ignorant person does not know that even when the hiding of things, large or small, is perfectly well done, still something will escape you. But if the universe is hidden in the universe itself, then there can be no escape from it. This is the great truth of things in general. We possess our body by chance and we are already pleased with it. If our physical bodies went through ten thousand transformations without end, how incomparable would this joy be! Therefore the sage roams freely in the realm in which nothing can escape but all endures. Those who regard dying a premature death, getting old, and the beginning and end of life as equally good are followed by others. How much more is that to which all things belong and on which the whole process of transformation depends (that is, Tao)?

  Tao has reality and evidence but no action or physical form. It may be transmitted but cannot be received. It may be obtained but cannot be seen. It is based in itself, rooted in itself. Before heaven and earth came into being, Tao existed by itself from all time. It gave spirits and rulers their spiritual powers. It created heaven and earth. It is above the zenith but it is not high. It is beneath the nadir but it is not low. It is prior to heaven and earth but it is not old. It is more ancient than the highest antiquity but is not regarded as long ago. Emperor Hsi-wei56 obtained it and so he set the universe in order. Emperor Fu-hsi57 obtained it and with it he was united with the source of material force. The Great Dipper obtained it and has therefore never erred from its course. The sun and moon obtained it and so they have never ceased to revolve. The deity K’an-pi obtained it and was therefore able to enter the high K’unlun mountains. F’eng I (a river immortal) obtained it and was therefore p. 262. able to roam in the great rivers. Chien-wu (a mountain immortal) obtained it and was therefore able to dwell on Mount T’ai. The Yellow Emperor obtained it and with it he ascended heaven high in the clouds. Emperor Chuan-hsü58 obtained it and with it he dwelt in the Dark Palace. The deity Yü-ch’iang59 obtained it and so he was established in the North Pole. The Queen Mother of the West obtained it and so she secured her seat in the vast empty space of the west, and no one knows when that began or will end. P’eng-tsu60 obtained it and so he lived from the time of Emperor Shun61 until the time of the five lords.62 Fu Yüeh obtained it and with it he became prime minister of King Wu-ting63 and in a grand manner extended his rule to the whole empire. [After he dies, his spirit], charioting upon one constellation and drawn by another, has taken its position as one of the heavenly stars.

  Comment. One of the most important passages on Tao. Note the stress on reality and evidence, remarkably similar to Lao Tzu, ch. 21. There is nothing negative about it.

  Nan-po Tzu-k’uei64 asked Nü-yü,65 “Sir, you are old but have the look of a child. How is this?”

  “I have learned Tao,” replied Nü-yü.

  “Can Tao be learned?” Nan-po Tzu-k’uei said.

  “Ah! How can it?” replied Nü-yü. “You are not the type of man. Pü-liang I66 had the ability of the sage but did not know the teachings. I knew all the teachings but did not have his ability. I wanted to teach him so he could become a sage. But that was not such a simple case. It seemed easy to teach the doctrines of a sage to a man with his ability. But I still had to wait to teach him. It was three days before he was able to transcend this world. After he transcended this world, I waited for seven days more and then he was able to transcend all material things. After he transcended all material things, I waited for nine days more and then he was able to transcend all life. Having transcended all life, he became as clear and bright as the morning. Having become as clear and bright as the morning, he was able to see the One. Having seen the One, he was then able to abolish the distinction of past and present. Having abolished the past and present, he was then able to enter the realm of neither life nor death. Then, to him, the destruction of life did not mean death and the production of life did not mean life. In dealing with things, he would not lean forward or backward to accommodate them. To him everything was in the process of destruction, everything was in the process of perfection. This is called tranquillity in disturbance. Tranquillity in disturbance means that it is especially in the midst of disturbance that [tranquillity] becomes perfect.”

  Comment. Like many of Chuang Tzu’s phrases, “not to lean forward or backward” has become a favorite dictum among later Chinese thinkers, especially Neo-Confucianists. It does not mean moderation or indifference but absolute spontaneity and impartiality in dealing with things and complete naturalness in response to things.

  “Where did you learn this?” asked Nan-po Tzu-k’uei.

  “I learned it from the son of Writing the Assistant (for writing is no more than an aid),” Nü-yü said. “The son of Writing the Assistant learned it from the grandson of Repeated Recitation (which preceded writing), the grandson of Repeated Recitation learned it from Clear Understanding, Clear Understanding learned it from Whispering, Whispering learned it from Earnest Practice, Earnest Practice learned it from Joyful Singing, Joyful Singing learned it from Noumenon (hsüanming),67 Noumenon learned it from Penetration of Vacuity, and Penetration of Vacuity learned it from Doubtful Beginning.”

  Tzu-ssu, Tzu-yü, Tzu-li, and Tzu-lai68 were conversing together, saying, “Whoever can make non-being the head, life the backbone, and death the buttocks, and whoever knows that life and death, and existence and non-existence are one, that man shall be our friend.” The four looked at each other and smiled, completely understood one another, and thus became friends.

  Soon afterward Tzu-yü fell ill and Tzu-ssu went to see him. “Great is the Creator!” said the sick man. “See how he (or it) has made me crumbled up like this!”

  Comment. The term �
��Creator” (Tso-wu ehe) seems to suggest a personal God. But as Kuo Hsiang points out, this means Nature, which also creates.

  His back was hunched and his backbone was protruding. His internal organs were on the top of his body. His cheeks were level with his navel. His shoulders were higher than his head. The hair on top of his head pointed up toward the sky. The yin and yang (passive and active cosmic forces) in him were out of order, but his mind was at ease as though nothing had happened. He limped and walked quickly to the well and looked at his reflection, and said, “Alas! The Creator has made me crumbled up like this!”

  “Do you dislike it?” asked Tzu-ssu.

  “No,” said Tzu-yü, “why should I dislike it? Suppose my left arm is transformed into a cock. With it I should herald the dawn. Suppose my right arm is transformed into a sling. With it I should look for a dove to roast. Suppose my buttocks were transformed into wheels and my spirit into a horse. I should mount them. What need do I have for a chariot? When we come, it is because it was the occasion to be born. When we go, it is to follow the natural course of things. Those who are contented and at ease when the occasion comes and live in accord with the course of Nature cannot be affected by sorrow or joy. This is what the ancients called release from bondage. Those who cannot release themselves are so because they are bound by material things. That material things cannot overcome Nature, however, has been a fact from time immemorial. Why, then, should I dislike it?”

  Comment. Release here means spiritual freedom and is to be sharply differentiated from Buddhist Nirvāṇa.