A Source Book in Chinese Philosophy

by Wing-Tsit Chan

  Each of the Five Agents succeeds the others according to its order. Each of them performs its official function by fulfilling its capacity. Thus Wood occupies the eastern quarter and controls the forces (ch’i) of spring, Fire occupies the southern quarter and controls the forces of summer, Metal occupies the western quarter and controls the forces of autumn, and Water occupies the northern quarter and controls the forces of winter. For this reason Wood controls production, Metal controls destruction, Fire controls heat, and Water controls cold. It is the course of Nature that people must be employed according to their order and officials appointed according to their capacity. Earth occupies the center and is the natural benefactor. It is the helper of Heaven. Its character is abundant and beautiful and cannot be identified with the affairs of any single season. Therefore among the Five Agents and the four seasons, Earth includes them all. Although Metal, Wood, Water, and Fire each have their own functions, their positions would not be established were it not for Earth, just as sourness, saltiness, acridness, and bitterness would not become tastes were it not for savoriness. Savoriness is the basis of the five tastes, and Earth is the controlling factor of the Five Agents. The controling factor of the Five Agents is the material force of Earth. It is like the fact that with savoriness the five tastes cannot help being tastes. Therefore among the actions of the sage, nothing is more valuable than loyalty, for it is the character of Earth. The great office of men, the function of which need not be mentioned, is that which they receive from each other. The great office of Heaven, the origin of which need not be mentioned, is Earth, (sptk, 11:2b-3b)

  C. The Correspondence of Man and the Numerical Categories of Heaven (ch. 56)

  Heaven is characterized by the power to create and spread things, Earth is characterized by its power to transform, and man is characterized by moral principles. The material force of Heaven is above, that of Earth below, and that of man in between. Spring produces and summer grows, and all things flourish. Autumn destroys and winter stores, and all things are preserved. Therefore there is nothing more refined than material force, richer than Earth, or more spiritual than Heaven. Of the creatures born from the refined essence of Heaven and Earth, none is more noble than man. Man receives the mandate from Heaven and is therefore superior to other creatures.21 Other creatures suffer troubles and defects and cannot practice humanity and righteousness; man alone can practice them. Other creatures suffer troubles and defects and cannot match Heaven and Earth; man alone can match them. Man has 360 joints, which match the number of Heaven (the round number of days in a year). His body with its bones and flesh matches the thickness of Earth. He has ears and eyes above, with their keen sense of hearing and seeing, which resemble the sun and moon. His body has its orifices and veins, which resemble rivers and valleys. His heart has feelings of sorrow, joy, pleasure, and anger, which are analogous to the spiritual feelings (of Heaven). As we look at man’s body, how much superior it is to that of other creatures and how similar to Heaven! Other creatures derive their life from the yin and yang of Heaven in a non-erect way, but man brilliantly shows his patterns and order. Therefore with respect to the physical form of other creatures, they all move about in a non-erect and incumbent position. Man alone stands erect, looks straight forward, and assumes a correct posture. Thus those who receive little from Heaven and Earth take the non-erect posture, while those receiving much from them take the correct posture. From this we can see that man is distinct from other creatures and forms a trinity with Heaven and Earth.

  Therefore in the body of man, his head rises up and is round and resembles the shape of heaven.22 His hair resembles the stars and constellations. His ears and eyes, quick in their senses, resemble the sun and the moon. The breathing of his nostrils and mouth resembles the wind. The penetrating knowledge of his mind resembles the spiritual intelligence [of Heaven], His abdomen and womb, now full and now empty, resemble the myriad things. The myriad things are nearest to the earth. Therefore the portion of the body below the waist corresponds to earth. As the body resembles heaven and earth, the waist serves as a sash. What is above the neck is noble and majestic in spirit, which is to manifest the feature of heaven and its kind. What is below the neck is full and humble, comparable to the soil. The feet are spread out and square, resembling the shape of the earth. Therefore in wearing ceremonial sash and girdle, the neck must be straight to distinguish it from the heart. What is above the sash (the waist) is all yang and what is below the sash is all yin, each with its own function. The yang is the material force of heaven, and the yin is the material force of the earth. Therefore when yin and yang become operative and cause man to have ailment in the foot or numbness in the throat [for example], the material force of the earth rises to become clouds and rain. Thus there is resemblance in the correspondence. The agreement of heaven and earth and the correspondence between yin and yang are ever found complete in the human body. The body is like heaven. Its numerical categories and those of heaven are mutually interwoven, and therefore their lives are interlocked. Heaven completes the human body with the number of days in a full year. Consequently the body’s 366 lesser joints correspond to the number of days in a year, and the twelve larger joints correspond to the number of months. Internally the body has the five viscera,23 which correspond to the number of the Five Agents. Externally there are the four limbs, which correspond to the four seasons. The alternating of opening and closing of the eyes corresponds to day and night. The alternating of strength and weakness corresponds to winter and summer. And the alternating of sorrow and joy corresponds to yin and yang. The mind has calculations and deliberations, which fact corresponds to that of periods of time and number of degrees of distance. Man’s conduct follows the principles of human relations, which fact corresponds to the relationship of heaven and earth. All this, whether obscure or obvious in the body, is born with man. When it is matched with heaven and earth and compared, it is found to be fitting. In what may be numbered, there is correspondence in number. In what may not be numbered, there is correspondence in kind. They are all identical and correspond to Heaven. Thus [Heaven and man] are one. Therefore present the formed so as to make manifest the formless and get hold of what may be numbered to [make manifest what may not be numbered]. Spoken of in this way, it is quite proper for things to correspond to each other in kind. It is like the form [of the body]. Its [correspondence to heaven] is correct by virtue of its numerical categories, (sptk, 13:1b-3b)

  Comment. To match the number of bones in the human body with the number of days in the year sounds ridiculous and suggests that it is no more than a leftover of primitive divination. What is not so ridiculous, however, is the possibility of knowledge of the formless from the formed and through numbers. This involves the belief that all things of the same kind are reducible to the same pattern and the same numerical category. Behind all this is the idea of uniformity of nature and knowledge by inference, quite aside from the mere doctrine of correspondence of man and Nature or their unity.

  D. Things of the Same Kind Activate Each Other (ch. 57)

  If now water be poured on level ground, it will avoid the dry area and run to the wet area, whereas if two identical pieces of firewood are exposed to fire, the fire will avoid the wet piece and go to the dry one.24 All things avoid what is different from them and follow what is similar to them. Therefore similar forces come together and matching tones respond to each other.25 This is clear from evidence. Suppose the sevenstringed and the twenty-five stringed lutes are tuned and played. When the note F in the one is struck, the note F on the other will respond to it, and when the note G in the one is struck, the note G in the other will respond to it. Among the five notes each one that matches will sound of itself. There is nothing supernatural in this. It is their natural course that they do so. A beautiful thing calls forth things that are beautiful in kind and an ugly thing calls forth things that are ugly in kind, for things of the same kind arise in response to each other. For example, when a horse neighs, it is hor
ses that will respond, [and when an ox lows, it is oxen that will respond]. Similarly, when an emperor or a king is about to rise, auspicious omens will first appear, and when he is about to perish, unlucky omens will first appear.26 Therefore things of the same kind call forth each other. Because of the dragon, rain is produced, and by the use of the fan, the heat is chased away. Wherever armies are stationed, briers and thorns grow.27 All beautiful and ugly things have their origins and have their lives accordingly. But none knows where these origins are.

  Comment. The belief in portents is as old as Chinese thought. What is new in Tung Chung-shu is that he explains it in terms of natural law. Instead of expressions of the pleasure or displeasure of spiritual beings, portents are results of the cosmic material forces of yin and yang.

  When the sky is dark and it is about to rain, a person’s sickness affects him first, because the force of yin rises in response. When the sky is dark and it is about to rain, people want to sleep, because the material force of yin is at work. People who are sad want to lie down, because the yin of sadness and lying down seek each other. And people who are happy do not want to lie down because the yang of happiness and staying up require each other. Because of the night, the water level rises in some degree. Because of the east wind, the wine becomes further fermented.28 When the night comes, the sick person’s sickness becomes worse. When the day is about to dawn, cocks all crow and press on each other, their force becoming more and more refined. Therefore the yang reinforces the yang and the yin reinforces the yin, for the forces of yin and yang can naturally augment or diminish things because of their similarity in kind.

  Heaven possesses yin and yang and man also possesses yin and yang. When the universe’s material force of yin arises, man’s material force of yin arises in response. Conversely, when man’s material force of yin arises, that of the universe should also arise in response. The principle is the same. He who understands this, when he wishes to bring forth rain, will activate the yin in man in order to arouse the yin of the universe. When he wishes to stop rain, he will activate the yang in man in order to arouse the yang of the universe. Therefore the bringing forth of rain is nothing supernatural. People suspect that it is supernatural because its principle is subtle and wonderful. It is not only the material forces of yin and yang that can advance or withdraw according to their kind. Even the way misfortunes, calamities, and blessings are produced follows the same principle. In all cases one starts something himself and other things become active in response according to their kind. Therefore men of intelligence, sageliness, and spirit introspect and listen to themselves, and their words become intelligent and sagely. The reason why introspection and listening to oneself alone can lead to intelligence and sageliness is because one knows that his original mind lies there. Therefore when the note of F is struck in the seven-stringed or twenty-one stringed lute, the F note in other lutes sound of themselves in response. This is a case of things being activated because they are similar in kind. Their activity takes place in sound and is invisible. Not seeing the form of their activity, people say that they sound of themselves. Furthermore, since they activate each other invisibly, it is thought that they do so themselves. In reality, it is not that they do so themselves, but that there is something that causes them. In reality things are caused, but the cause is invisible. According to the tradition mentioned in the commentary of the Book of History, when the House of Chou was about to arise, some big red crows holding some seeds of grain in their bills gathered on the roof of the king’s house. King Wu (r. 1121–1116 b.c.?) was happy and all great officials were glad. The Duke of Chou (d. 1094 b.c.) said, “Make greater effort. Make greater effort. Heaven shows this in order to exhort us.”29 The duke was afraid that people depended on [Heaven]. (sptk, 13:3b-5a)

  E. Additional Selections

  1. The Origin (Yüan)

  Why does the Spring and Autumn Annals value the origin highly and talk about it?30 The origin means the beginning. It means that the foundation must be correct. It expresses the kingly way. The king is the beginning of man. If the king is correct, then the original material force will be harmonious, wind and rain will be timely, lucky stars will appear, and the yellow dragon will descend. If the king is not correct, then strange transformations will take place in heaven above and bandits will appear. . . . (ch. 6, sptk, 4:1a)

  It is only the Sage who can relate the myriad things to the One and tie it to the origin. If the source is not traced and the development from it followed, nothing can be accomplished. Therefore in the Spring and Autumn Annals the first year is changed to be called the year of yüan (origin). The origin is the same as source (yüan).31 It means that it accompanies the beginning and end of Heaven and Earth. Therefore if man in his life has a beginning and end like this, he does not have to respond to the changes of the four seasons. Therefore the origin is the source of all things, and the origin of man is found in it. How does it exist? It exists before Heaven and Earth. Although man is born of the force of Heaven and receives the force of Heaven, he may not partake the origin of Heaven, or rely on its order and violate what it does. Therefore the first month of spring is a continuation of the activities of Heaven and Earth, continuing the activities of Heaven and completing it. The principle is that [Heaven and man] accomplish together and maintain the undertaking. How can it be said to be merely the origin of Heaven and Earth? What does the origin do? How does it apply to man? If we take the connections seriously, we shall understand the order of things. The Sage did not want to talk about [the behavior] of animals and such. What he wanted to talk about was humanity and righteousness so as to put things in order. . . . (ch. 13, sptk, 5:8a-b)

  Comment. What Jesus did for the West—i.e., form a bridge between God and man—Tung would have Confucius do—i.e., form a bridge between the myriad things and the One or the origin. Actually in the Western Han there was an effort to deify him, but it was short-lived. What prevented Confucius’ permanent deification was his primary concern with a perfect moral life, that of humanity and righteousness.

  2. Humanity and Righteousness

  What the Spring and Autumn Annals regulates are others and the self. The principles with which to regulate others and the self are humanity and righteousness. Humanity is to give others peace and security and righteousness is to rectify the self. Therefore the word “humanity” (jen) means others (people, jen)32 and the word “righteousness” means the self.33 The distinction is made in the terms themselves. . . . The principle of humanity consists in loving people and not in loving oneself, and the principle of righteousness consists in rectifying oneself and not in rectifying others. If one is not rectified himself, he cannot be considered righteous even if he can rectify others, and if one loves himself very much but does not apply his love to others, he cannot be considered humane. . . . (ch. 29, sptk, 8:8b-9a)

  Comment. This understanding of humanity (jen) as love is found in ancient philosophers, notably in Mo Tzu (fl. 479–438 b.c.),34 Chuang Tzu,35 Hsün Tzu36 and Han Fei Tzu (d. 233 b.c.).37 But for them it was one of several possible meanings, but in Tung Chungshu it is the meaning. This interpretation is characteristic of practically all Han Confucianists, and Tung was the first.

  3. Humanity and Wisdom

  Love without wisdom means love without discrimination. Wisdom without humanity means knowledge not translated into action. Therefore humanity is to love mankind and wisdom is to remove its evil.

  What is meant by humanity? The man of humanity loves people with a sense of commiseration. He is careful and agreeable and does not quarrel. His likes and dislikes are harmonized with human relations. He does not harbor the feeling of hate or a desire to hurt. He has no intention to conceal or to evade. He has no disposition of jealousy. He has no desires that lead to sadness or worry. He does not do anything treacherous or cunning. And he does not do anything depraved. Therefore his heart is at ease, his will is peaceful, his vital force is harmonious, his desires are regulated, his actions are easy, and his condu
ct is in accord with the moral law. It is for this reason that he puts things in order peacefully and easily without any quarrel. This is what is meant by humanity.

  What is meant by wisdom? It is to speak first and then act accordingly. It is to weigh with one’s wisdom whether to act or not and then proceed accordingly. When one’s weighing is correct, what he does will be proper, what he handles will be appropriate, his action will bring result, his fame will become glorious, benefits will gather around him with no trouble, blessings will reach his offspring, and benefits will be bestowed on all his people. Such were the cases of wise kings T’ang and Wu.38 When one’s weighing is wrong, what he does will be improper, what he handles will be inappropriate, his action will bring no result, his name will become a shame, injuries will gather around him, his posterity will be cut off, and his state will be ruined. Such were the cases of [wicked kings Chieh and Chou].39. . . (ch. 30, sptk, 8:12b-13a)

  Comment. The equal emphasis on humanity and wisdom exercised a tremendous influence on K’ang Yu-wei (1858-1927).40

  4. Historical Cycles

  One becomes a king only after he has received the Mandate of Heaven. As the king, he will determine which day is to be the first day of the year for his dynasty, change the color of clothes worn at court, institute systems of ceremonies and music, and unify the whole empire. All this is to show that the dynasty has changed and that he is not succeeding any human being, and to make it very clear that he has received the mandate from Heaven. . . . Therefore T’ang received the mandate and became king. In response to Heaven he abolished the Hsia dynasty [whose system was symbolized by red]. He called his dynasty Yin (Shang). The system was corrected to be that symbolized by white. . . . King Wu received the mandate. . . . Therefore [in the beginning of] the Ch’un-ch’iu period [of the Chou dynasty], in response to Heaven, he undertook the business of a new king. The system was corrected to be that symbolized by black. . . . The Three Correct Systems41 began with the system symbolized by black. . . . The material force (ch’i), integrated by Heaven, begins to penetrate and transform things. It is evident that buds beginning to appear in plants are black (or dark, still closed). Therefore the color of clothes worn at court is black. . . . In the system symbolized by white. . . . the material force integrated by Heaven begins to form things. They begin to sprout. The color is white. Therefore the color of clothes worn at court is white. . . . In the system symbolized by red. . . . [the material force integrated by Heaven extends to all things and things begin their activity. The color is red].42. . . The reason why the Three Systems are called the Three Correct Systems is because they make things operate. When the integration is extended to cover the material force of all things, their will all will respond [to Heaven], As the correct system is rectified, everything else will be rectified. . . . (ch. 23, sptk, 7:3b-6a)