A Source Book in Chinese Philosophy

by Wing-Tsit Chan

  “The reason is that among men some are wise and others are stupid. The stupid are inferior, whereas the wise are superior. The deluded consult the wise and the wise explain the Law to the stupid and enable them to understand and to open up their minds.55 When deluded people understand and open up their minds, they are no longer different from the superior and the wise. Hence we know that without enlightenment, a Buddha is no different from other living beings. With enlightenment, even in a single instant of thought, all living beings become the same as a Buddha. Hence we know that all dharmas are immanent in one’s mind and person. Why not seek in one’s own mind the sudden realization of the original nature of True Thusness? The P’u-sa chieh ching says, ‘We are originally pure in our self-nature. If we understand our minds and see our nature, we shall achieve Buddhahood ourselves.’56 [And the Wei-mo-chieh (so-shuo) ching says] ‘Immediately we become completely clear and recover our original mind.’ ”57

  31. “Good and learned friends, when I was at Priest Hung-jen’s place, I understood immediately as soon as I heard him, and suddenly realized the original nature of True Thusness. For this reason I propagate this doctrine so that it will prevail among later generations and seekers of the Way will be able to achieve perfect wisdom through sudden enlightenment, each to see his own mind, and to become suddenly enlightened through his own original nature. If they are not able to enlighten themselves, they should seek good and learned friends of high standing to show them the way to see their nature.

  “What is meant by a good and learned friend of high standing? A good and learned friend of high standing is one who can explain to people the very best method and can directly show them the correct way. That is a good and learned friend of high standing. That is a great cause. That is to [say],58 he will teach and direct people so they can see their own nature. For all good dharmas arise because of him. [The wisdom] of the past, present, and future Buddhas as well as the twelve sections of the scripture are all immanent in human nature. It originally possesses them to the fullest extent. Those who cannot enlighten themselves should have good and learned friends to show them the way to see their nature. Those who can enlighten themselves, however, need not depend on good and learned friends. If they seek outside for good and learned friends and hope for emancipation, they will get nowhere. Understanding coming from the good and learned friend inside a person’s own mind, however, will lead him to emancipation. But if one’s own mind is perverse and deluded, [full of] erroneous thoughts and perversions, even if good and learned friends from the outside offer instructions, no salvation can be attained.59 If you have not been able to enlighten yourselves, you should arouse your wisdom illuminatingly to examine [facts and principles]. Then in an instant all erroneous thoughts will vanish. This is your true and really good and learned friend, who as soon as he is enlightened immediately realizes Buddhahood.”

  B.--THE RECORDED CONVERSATIONS OF SHEN-HUI60

  The priest (Shen-hui) said, “There are mundane mysteries and also supramundane mysteries. When a commoner suddenly becomes a sovereign, for example, it is mundane mystery. If in the first stage of one’s spiritual progress which consists of ten beliefs,61 in one’s initial resolve to seek perfect wisdom, an instant of thought corresponds with truth, one will immediately achieve Buddhahood. This is supramundane mystery. It is in accord with principle. What is there to wonder about? This clarifies the mystery of sudden enlightenment.” (p. 100)

  The priest said, “The resolve [to seek perfect wisdom] may be sudden or gradual, and delusion and enlightenment may be slow or rapid. Delusion may continue for infinitely long periods, but enlightenment takes but a moment. This principle is difficult to understand. Let me first give an analogy and then clarify the principle, and then you may perhaps understand through this example. Suppose there are individual strands of light green silk each consisting of numerous threads. If they are twisted to become a rope and are placed on a board, one cut with a sharp sword will sever all threads at the same time. Although the number of silk threads is large, it cannot stand the sword. It is the same with one who resolves to seek perfect wisdom. If he meets a truly good friend who by the use of [various]62 convenient means shows him True Thusness directly, and if he uses the diamond wisdom (which by its reality overcomes all illusory knowledge) to cut off all afflictions in the various stages, he will be completely enlightened, and will realize by himself that the nature of dharmas is originally empty and void. As his wisdom has become sharp and clear, he can penetrate everything and everywhere without obstacle. At this moment of realization, all causes [that give rise to attachment to external objects] will perish, and erroneous thoughts as numerous as sand in the Ganges will suddenly vanish altogether. Unlimited number of merits will be complete at the appropriate time. Once the diamond wisdom issues forth, why can’t [Buddhahood] be achieved?” (pp. 120-121)

  Teacher of the Law Chih-te63 asked, “Zen Master, you teach living beings to seek only sudden enlightenment. Why not follow the gradual cultivation of Hīnayāna? One can never ascend a nine-story tower without going up the steps gradually.”

  Answer: “I am afraid the tower you talk about ascending is not a nine-story tower but a square tomb consisting of a pile of earth. If it is really a nine-story tower, it would mean the principle of sudden enlightenment. If one directs one’s thought to sudden enlightenment as if one ascends a nine-story tower with the necessity of going through the steps gradually, one is not aiming right but sets up the principle of gradual enlightenment instead. Sudden enlightenment means satisfying both principle (li) and wisdom. The principle of sudden enlightenment means to understand without going through gradual steps, for understanding is natural. Sudden enlightenment means that one’s own mind is empty and void from the very beginning. It means that the mind has no attachment. It means to enlighten one’s mind while leaving dharmas as they are and to be absolutely empty in the mind. It means to understand all dharmas. It means not to be attached to Emptiness when one hears about it and at the same time not to be attached to the absence of Emptiness. It means not to be attached to the self when one hears about it and at the same time not to be attached to the absence of the self. It means entering Nirvāṇa without renouncing life and death. Therefore the scripture says, ‘[Living beings] have spontaneous wisdom and wisdom without teacher.’64 He who issues from principle approaches the Way rapidly, whereas he who cultivates externally approaches slowly. People are surprised and skeptical when they hear that there is supramundane mystery. There are sudden mysteries in the world. Do you believe it?”

  Comment. Note the equal emphasis on wisdom and principle. The rational element of principle, which occupies an important place in Hua-yen and later in Neo-Confucianism, also has an important role in Zen. Intuition does not preclude intellectual understanding.

  Question: “What do you mean?”

  Answer: “For example, Duke Chou (d. 1094 b.c.)65 and Fu Yüeh66 were originally a fisherman and a mason, respectively. ‘The choice laid in the minds of the rulers.’67 Consequently, they rose as simple folks and suddenly ascended to the position of a prime minister. Is this not a wonderful thing in the mundane world? As to wonderful things in the mundane world, when living beings whose minds are clearly full of greed, attachment, and ignorance, meet a truly good friend and in one instant of thought correspond [with truth], they will immediately achieve Buddhahood. Is this not a wonderful thing in the mundane world?

  “Furthermore, [the scripture]68 says, ‘All living beings achieve Buddhahood as they see their own nature.’ Also, Nāgakanyā, daughter of the Dragon King, achieved Buddhahood at the very moment she resolved to seek perfect wisdom.69 Again, in order to enable living beings to penetrate the knowledge and perception of the Buddha but not to allow sudden enlightenment, the Tathāgata everywhere spoke of the Five Vehicles (leading to their corresponding destinations for human beings, deities, ordinary disciples, the self-enlightened ones, and bodhisattvas).70 Now that the scriptures do not speak of the Five Vehicle
s but merely talk about penetrating the knowledge and perception of the Buddha, in the strict sense they only show the method of sudden enlightenment. It is to harbor only one thought that corresponds with truth but surely not to go through gradual steps. By corresponding is meant the understanding of the absence of thought, the understanding of self-nature, and being absolutely empty in the mind. Because the mind is absolutely empty, that is Tathāgata Meditation. The Wei-mo-chieh [so-shuo] ching says, “I contemplate my own body in the sense of real character. I contemplate the Buddha in the same way. I see the Tathāgata as neither coming before, nor going afterward, and not remaining at present.”71 Because it does not remain (no attachment), it is Tathāgata Meditation.” (pp. 130-132)

  Question: “Why is ignorance72 the same as spontaneity (tzu-jan)”

  Answer: “Because ignorance and Buddha-nature come into existence spontaneously. Ignorance had Buddha-nature as the basis and Buddha-nature has ignorance as the basis. Since one is basis for the other, when one exists, the other exists also. With enlightenment, it is Buddha-nature. Without enlightenment, it is ignorance. The Nieh-p’an ching (Nirvāṇa Scripture) says, ‘It is like gold and mineral. They come into existence at the same time. After a master founder has smelted and refined the material, gold and the mineral will presently be differentiated. The more refined, the purer the gold will become, and with further smelting, the residual mineral will become dust.’73 The gold is analogous to Buddha-nature, whereas mineral is analogous to afflictions resulting from passions. Afflictions and Buddha-nature exist simultaneously. If the Buddhas, bodhisattvas,74 and truly good friends teach us so we may resolve to cultivate perfect wisdom, we shall immediately achieve emancipation.”

  Question: “If ignorance is spontaneity, is that not identical with the spontaneity of heretics?”

  Answer: “It is identical with the spontaneity of the Taoists, but the interpretations are different.”

  Question: “How different?”

  Answer: “In Buddhism both Buddha-nature and ignorance are spontaneous. Why? Because all dharmas depend on the power of Buddha-nature. Therefore all dharmas belong to spontaneity. But in the spontaneity of Taoism, ‘Tao produced the One. The One produced the two. The two produced the three. And the three produced the ten thousand things.’75 From the One down, all the rest are spontaneous. Because of this the interpretations are different.” (pp. 98-99)

  The assistant to the governor said, “All palace monks serving the emperor speak of causation instead of spontaneity, whereas Taoist priests over the world only speak of spontaneity and do not speak of causation.”

  Answer: “It is due to their stupid mistake that monks set up causation but not spontaneity, and it is due to their [stupid] mistake that Taoist priests only set up spontaneity but not causation.”

  The assistant to the governor asked: “We can understand the causation of the monks, but what is their spontaneity? We can understand the spontaneity of the Taoists, but what is their causation?”

  Answer: “The spontaneity of the monks is the self-nature of living beings. Moreover, the scripture says, “Living beings [have] spontaneous wisdom and wisdom without teacher.’ This is called spontaneity. But in the case of causation of the Taoists, Tao can produce the One, the One can produce the two, the two can produce the three, and the three produce all things. All are produced because of Tao. If there were no Tao, nothing will be produced. Thus all things belong to causation.” (pp. 143-144)

  C.--THE RECORDED CONVERSATIONS OF ZEN MASTER I-HSÜAN76

  1.--The Prefect, Policy Advisor Wang,77 and other officials requested the Master to lecture. The Master ascended the hall and said, “Today it is only because I, a humble monk, reluctantly accommodate human feelings that I sit on this chair. If one is restricted to one’s heritage in expounding the fundamental understanding [of salvation], one really cannot say anything and would have nothing to stand on.78 However, because of the honorable general advisor’s strong request today, how can the fundamental doctrines be concealed? Are there any talented men or fighting generals to hurl their banners and unfold their strategy right now? Show79 it to the group!”

  A monk asked, “What is the basic idea of the Law preached by the Buddha?” Thereupon the Master shouted at him. The monk paid reverence. The Master said, “The Master and the monk can argue all right.”

  Question: “Master, whose tune are you singing? Whose tradition are you perpetuating?”

  The Master said, “When I was a disciple of Huang-po,80 I asked him three times and I was beaten three times.”

  As the monk hesitated about what to say, the Master shouted at him and then beat him, saying, “Don’t nail a stick into empty space.”81

  2.--The Master ascended the hall and said, “Over a lump of reddish flesh there sits a pure man who transcends and is no longer attached to any class of Buddhas or sentient beings. He comes in and out of your sense organs all the time. If you are not yet clear about it, look, look!”

  At that point a monk came forward and asked, “What is a pure man who does not belong to any class of Buddhas or sentient beings?” The Master came right down from his chair and, taking hold of the monk, exclaimed, “Speak! Speak!” As the monk deliberated what to say, the Master let him go, saying, “What dried human excrement-removing stick is the pure man who does not belong to any class of Buddhas or sentient beings!” Thereupon he returned to his room, (tsd, 47:496)

  Comment. This is one of the most famous koans. The nonsensical answer in the koan is a new Zen device, but witty and shocking conversations have their precedents in Taoism and Neo-Taoism. One can find many in the Chuang Tzu and the Shih-shuo hsin-yü (New Discourse on the Talk of the Times), to mention only two well-known examples.

  The mention of excrement is no vulgarism. It is derived from Chuang Tzu who said that Tao is even in human excrement and urine.82 Japanese scholars have invariably avoided direct translation of the term and used such expressions as “dried stick of dirt” instead. In doing so, they have missed the extremely important point in Taoism and seem to forget that the Buddha, like Tao, is everywhere.

  3.--The Master ascended the hall. A monk asked, “What is the basic idea of the Law preached by the Buddha?” The Master lifted up his swatter. The monk shouted, and the Master beat him.

  [The monk asked again], “What is the basic idea of the Law preached by the Buddha?” The Master again lifted up his swatter. The monk shouted, and the Master shouted also. As the monk hesitated about what to say, the Master beat him.

  Comment. The swatter was originally used to hit mosquitoes but in Zen it is used to needle the mind. Hu Shih and Suzuki are diametrically opposed in their interpretations of such a technique. For Hu Shih, the apparently nonsensical Zen gestures are calculated to force the student to think for himself, “a method of education by the hard way.”83 For Suzuki, the swatter and various forms of gestures represent Zen’s “persistent and often violent opposition to words and then to the intellect which deals exclusively in words.”84 Suzuki added that Zen has no prescribed methods. We may add that in the typical Buddhist fashion of the Four Points of Argumentation,85 the swatter may mean this, it may mean that, it may mean both this and that, and it may mean neither this nor that.

  Thereupon the Master said, “Listen, men. Those who pursue after the Law will not escape from death. I was in my late Master Huang-po’s place for twenty years. Three times I asked him about the basic idea of the Law preached by the Buddha and three times he bestowed upon me the staff. I felt I was struck only by a dried stalk. Now I wish to have a real beating. Who can do it to me?”

  One monk came out of the group and said, “I can do it.”

  The Master picked up the staff to give him. As he was about to take it over, the Master beat him. (tsd, 47:496-497)

  4.--The Master ascended the hall and said, “A man stands on top of a cliff, with no possibility of rising any further. Another man stands at the crossroad, neither facing nor backing anything. Who is in the front and
who is in the back? Don’t be like Vimalakīrti (who was famous for his purity), and don’t be like Great Gentleman Fu (who benefited others).86 Take care of yourselves.” (tsd, 47:497)

  5.--The Master told the congregation: “Seekers of the Way. In Buddhism no effort is necessary. All one has to do is to do nothing, except to move his bowels, urinate, put on his clothing, eat his meals, and lie down if he is tired. The stupid will laugh at him, but the wise one will understand. An ancient person said, One who makes effort externally is surely a fool.’ ”87 (tsd, 47:498)

  6.--Question: “What is meant by the mind’s not being different at different times?”

  The Master answered, “As you deliberated to ask the question, your mind has already become different. Therefore the nature and character of dharmas have become differentiated. Seekers of the Way, do not make any mistake. All mundane and supramundane dharmas have no nature of their own. Nor have they the nature to be produced [by causes]. They have only the name Emptiness, but even the name is empty. Why do you take this useless name as real? You are greatly mistaken! . . . If you seek after the Buddha, you will be taken over by the devil of the Buddha, and if you seek after the patriarch, you will be taken over by the devil of the patriarch. If you seek after anything, you will always suffer. It is better not to do anything. Some unworthy priests tell their disciples that the Buddha is the ultimate, and that he went through three infinitely long periods, fulfilled his practice, and then achieved Buddhahood. Seekers of the Way, if you say that the Buddha is the ultimate, why did he die lying down sidewise in the forest in Kuśinagara after having lived for eighty years? Where is he now?. . . Those who truly seek after the Law will have no use for the Buddha. They will have no use for the bodhisattvas or arhats.88 And they will have no use for any excellence in the Three Worlds (of desires, matter, and pure spirit).89 They will be distinctly free and not bound by material things. Heaven and earth may turn upside down but I shall have no more uncertainty. The Buddhas of the ten cardinal directions may appear before me and I shall not feel happy for a single moment. The three paths (of fire, blood, and swords) to hell may suddenly appear, but I shall not be afraid for a single moment. Why? Because I know that all dharmas are devoid of characters. They exist when there is transformation [in the mind] and cease to exist when there is no transformation. The Three Worlds are but the mind, and all dharmas are consciousness only. Therefore [they are all] dreams, illusions, and flowers in the air. What is the use of grasping and seizing them?. . .