A Source Book in Chinese Philosophy

by Wing-Tsit Chan

  2. PENETRATING THE BOOK OF CHANGES

  Ch. 1. Sincerity, Pt. 1

  Sincerity (ch’eng)28 is the foundation of the sage. “Great is the ch’ien, the originator! All things obtain their beginning from it.”29 It is the source of sincerity. “The way of ch’ien is to change and transform so that everything will obtain its correct nature and destiny.”30 In this way sincerity is established. It is pure and perfectly good. Therefore “the successive movement of yin and yang constitutes the Way (Tao). What issues from the Way is good, and that which realizes it is the individual nature.”31 Origination and flourish characterize the penetration of sincerity, and advantage and firmness are its completion (or recovery). Great is the Change, the source of nature and destiny!

  Ch. 2. Sincerity, Pt. 2

  Sagehood is nothing but sincerity. It is the foundation of the Five Constant Virtues (humanity, righteousness, propriety, wisdom, and faithfulness) and the source of all activities. When tranquil, it is in the state of non-being, and when active, it is in the state of being. It is perfectly correct and clearly penetrating. Without sincerity, the Five Constant Virtues and all activities will be wrong. They will be depraved and obstructed. Therefore with sincerity very little effort is needed [to achieve the Mean].32 [In itself] it is perfectly easy but it is difficult to put into practice. But with determination and firmness, there will be no difficulty. Therefore it is said, “If a man can for one day master himself and return to propriety, all under heaven will return to humanity.”33

  Ch. 3. Sincerity is the Subtle, Incipient, Activating Force (Chi) of Virtue

  Sincerity [in its original substance] engages in no activity, but is the subtle, incipient, activating force giving rise to good and evil. The virtue of loving is called humanity, that of doing what is proper is called righteousness, that of putting things in order is called propriety, that of penetration is called wisdom, and that of abiding by one’s commitments is called faithfulness. One who is in accord with his nature and acts with ease is a sage. One who returns to his nature and adheres to it is a worthy. And one whose subtle emanation cannot be seen and whose [goodness] is abundant and all-pervasive without limit is a man of the spirit.34

  Comment. The first sentence of this chapter occasioned a great deal of discussion among Neo-Confucianists.35 Chou seems to contradict himself, for sincerity, being the original state of man’s moral nature, is perfectly good and yet it gives rise to both good and evil. Actually the problem of evil had bothered Confucianists right along and there was no solution until Chang Tsai (Chang Heng-ch’ü, 1020-1077).36 Chou adheres to the traditional Confucian position that human nature is inherently good but as one’s nature comes into contact with external things, good and evil appear. Whereas both Taoism and Buddhism maintain that this external influence corrupts, Confucianism puts the responsibility on man himself by holding that evil appears when man fails to adhere to the Mean.37 Thus the good moral nature is substance, and good and evil appear only in its function. This doctrine was upheld throughout the history of Neo-Confucianism. As Sun Ch’i-feng (1584-1675) has observed in commenting on this chapter, Chou teaches that good results from one’s being correct and evil from one’s being one-sided, a theory quite different from that of Hu Hung (Hu Wu-feng, 1100-1155), who said that both good and evil proceed from nature.38 Chou Tzu’s important contribution in this connection is his idea of subtle, incipient activation. It is also found in chapters four and nine and, according to Chu Hsi, is implicit in chapter twenty-seven.39

  The word chi means an originating power, an inward spring of activity, an emergence not yet visible, a critical point at which one’s direction toward good or evil is set. It is here and now that one must be absolutely sincere and true to his moral nature so he will not deviate from it either in going too far or not going far enough. Thus Chou turns a quietistic state into a dynamic one.

  Ch. 4. Sagehood

  “The state of absolute quiet and inactivity” is sincerity. The spirit is that which, “when acted on, immediately penetrates all things.”40 And the state of subtle incipient activation is the undifferentiated state between existence and nonexistence when activity has started but has not manifested itself in physical form. Sincerity is infinitely pure and hence evident. The spirit is responsive and hence works wonders. And incipient activation is subtle and hence abstruse. The sage is the one who is in the state of sincerity, spirit, and subtle incipient activation.

  Ch. 5. Caution about Activity

  When activity is directed along its correct course, we have the Way. When its operations are harmonized, we have virtue. The violation of humanity, of righteousness, of propriety, of wisdom, and of faithfulness is depravity. Any activity of depravity is disgraceful. When pushed to a high degree, it is even dangerous. Consequently, the superior man is cautious about his activity.

  Ch. 6. The Way

  The way of the sage is nothing but humanity, righteousness, the Mean, and correctness. Preserve it and it will be ennobling. Practice it and it will be beneficial. Extend it and it will match Heaven and Earth. Is it not easy and simple? Is it hard to know? (If so), it is because we do not preserve, practice, and extend it.

  Comment. Note that “humanity, righteousness, the Mean, and correctness” is a quotation from the Explanation of the Diagram. This treatise repeats the Explanation four times (chs. 6, 16, 20, 22). As a matter of fact, as Chu Hsi has said, the entire treatise is an elaboration on the Explanation.41

  Ch. 7. Teachers

  Someone asked, “How can good be promoted in the world?”

  I said, “Through teachers.”

  “How is that?”

  I said, “In human nature there are only strength, weakness, good, evil, and the Mean.”

  The questioner did not understand.

  I explained, “Righteousness, uprightness, decisiveness, strictness, and firmness of action are examples of strength that is good, and fierceness, narrow-mindedness, and violence are examples of strength that is evil. Kindness, mildness, and humility are examples of weakness that is good, and softness, indecision, and perverseness are examples of weakness that is evil. Only the Mean brings harmony. The Mean is the principle of regularity, the universally recognized law of morality, and is that to which the sage is devoted. Therefore the sage institutes education so as to enable people to transform their evil by themselves, to arrive at the Mean and to rest there. Therefore those who are the first to be enlightened should instruct those who are slower in attaining enlightenment, and the ignorant should seek help from those who understand. Thus the way of teachers is established. As the way of teachers is established, there will be many good people. With many good people, the government will be correct and the empire will be in order.”

  Comment. Chou Tzu’s doctrines on education here and on government, ceremonies, and music below are traditional and there is nothing new. The same is true of later Neo-Confucianists. The important philosophical point here is that the Mean is considered the highest good. According to Chu Hsi, strength and weakness and good and evil refer to physical nature, not original nature.42

  Ch. 8. Fortune

  It is a misfortune in one’s life that he is not told his mistakes, and it is a great misfortune not to have a sense of shame. Only with a sense of shame can one be educated, and if one is told his mistakes, it will make it possible for him to become a worthy.

  Ch. 9. Thought

  It is said in the “Great Norm” that “thought should be penetrating and profound. . . . Such thinking leads to sageliness.”43 Having no thought is the foundation, and thinking penetratively is its function. With subtle incipient activation becoming active on the one hand, and with sincerity becoming active in response, on the other—having no thought and yet penetrating all—thus is one a sage.

  One cannot penetrate subtlety without thought, and cannot penetrate all without profound thought. Thus the ability to penetrate all comes from the ability to penetrate subtlety, and the ability to penetrate subtlety comes from thi
nking. Therefore thinking is the foundation of the sage’s effort and is also the subtle, incipient activation of good and evil. It is said in the Book of Changes, “The superior man acts as soon as he sees the subtle, incipient activating force [giving rise to good and evil] without waiting for the end of the day.”44 It is again said, “One who knows subtle incipient activation is a man of the spirit.”45

  Comment. Under Taoist influence, Chou Tun-i emphasized tranquillity. Unlike the Taoists, however, he stressed thinking also. It is thinking that keeps one alert to the subtle, incipient activation of good and evil. Clearly, there is a fundamental difference between his tranquillity and that of the Taoists. However, about thinking itself, Chou has said very little.

  Ch. 10. The Will to Learn

  The sage aspires to become Heaven, the worthy aspires to become a sage, and the gentleman aspires to become a worthy. I-yin and Yen Yüan were great worthies. I-yin was ashamed that his ruler would not become a sage-emperor like Yao and Shun,46 and if a single person in the empire was not well adjusted, he felt as if he himself were as disgraced as if he had been whipped in public. Yen Yüan47 “did not transfer his anger; he did not repeat a mistake,”48 and “for three months there would be nothing in his mind contrary to humanity.”49 If one desires what I-yin desired and learns what Yen Yüan learned, he will become a sage if he reaches the highest degree and a worthy if he reaches the proper degree. Even if he does not, he will not miss a good reputation.

  Ch. 11. Harmony and Transformation

  Heaven produces the ten thousand things through yang and brings them to completion through yin. To produce is humanity, and to bring to completion is righteousness. Therefore when the sage administers an empire, he cultivates all things with humanity and sets all people right with righteousness. As the Way of Heaven operates, all things are in harmony. As the virtue of the sage-ruler is cultivated, all people are transformed. The great harmony and great transformation leave no trace, and no one knows how they come to be: This is called spirit. Therefore, the foundation of the multitude lies in one person. Is the Way far away? Need there be many methods [other than humanity and righteousness]?

  Ch. 12. Government

  In governing a hamlet of ten families, it is impossible to complete the task even if one teaches everybody most earnestly to the point of whispering to his ears. How much more difficult in an extensive empire with millions of people. The answer is this: Purify the heart, that is all. By purity is meant that one, whether he is active or tranquil, does not violate humanity, righteousness, propriety, and wisdom in his speech, appearance, seeing, or listening. When one’s heart is pure, men of virtue and talents will come to help him. With the help of such men the empire will be governed. Purity of heart is indeed important, and the employment of men of virtue and talents is an urgent matter.

  Ch. 13. Ceremony and Music

  Ceremonies are intended to establish order (li) and music means to harmonize. Only when yin and yang operate according to order can they be in harmony. Then the ruler will truly be the ruler, the minister will truly be the minister, the father will truly be the father, the son will truly be the son, brothers will truly be brothers, and husband and wife will truly be husband and wife. All things must fulfill their principle before they are in harmony. Therefore ceremonies come first and music afterward.

  Ch. 14. Devotion to Actuality

  When actuality (substance) dominates, it is good, but when name dominates, it is shame. Therefore the superior man advances his virtue and cultivates all aspects of his task with unceasing diligence, for he wants actuality to dominate. If his virtue or task has not become prominent, he fears with a sense of alarm that the fact may become known, for he wants to be as far away from shame as possible. On the other hand, the inferior man is simply insincere. Therefore the superior man is at ease at all times whereas the inferior man is anxious at all times.

  Ch. 15. Love and Reverence

  “Suppose I do not measure up to the goodness of others. [What shall I do?]”

  “If you do not measure up to it, learn to do so.”

  “What if others do evil?”

  “If they do evil, tell them that it is evil and, furthermore, exhort them, saying, ‘Suppose you change your ways. You will then be a superior man.’ If one person does good and two do evil, learn from the one and exhort the two. If someone should say, ‘So-and-so does evil but it is not a great wrong,’ you should say, ‘Who does not make mistakes? How do we know that they cannot be corrected? If one corrects his mistakes, he will be a superior man. If he does not correct them, that will be wrong, and Heaven dislikes the wrong. Does he not fear Heaven? How do we know he cannot correct his mistakes?’ ”50 Therefore the superior man possesses all virtues and is loved and revered by all.

  Ch. 16. Activity and Tranquillity

  Things cannot be tranquil while active or active while tranquil. Spirit, however, can be active without activity and tranquil without tranquillity.51 Being active without activity and tranquil without tranquillity does not mean that spirit is neither active nor tranquil.52 Things cannot penetrate each other but spirit works wonders with all things. The passive material force of Water is rooted in yang and the active material force of Fire is rooted in yin. The Five Agents are nothing but yin and yang and these in turn are the Great Ultimate. The four seasons run their course, and all things have their beginnings and ends. How undifferentiated! How extensive! And how infinite!

  Ch. 17. Music, Pt. 1

  In ancient times sage-kings instituted ceremonies and cultivated moral education. They rectified the Three Bonds (of ruler and minister, father and son, and husband and wife) and put in order the Nine Categories (of the Great Norm).53 Consequently all people were in perfect harmony and all things were in concord. Thereupon the sage-kings created music to give expression to the winds (people’s sentiments) coming from the eight directions and to appease the feelings of the people. This is the reason why the sound of music is calm and not harmful, and is harmonious without being licentious. As it enters the ear and affects the heart, everyone becomes calm and peaceful. Because of calmness, one’s desires will be appeased, and because of harmony, one’s impetuousness will disappear. Peace, calmness, and moderation—these are the height of virtue. As the world is transformed and brought to completion,54 government reaches its perfection. This is what is meant by moral principles which match Heaven and Earth and which are the ultimate standard of the ancients.55

  Later generations have neglected ceremonies. Their governmental measures and laws have been in disorder. Rulers have indulged their material desires without restraint, and consequently the people below them have suffered bitterly. Rulers have claimed that ancient music is not worth listening to and replaced it by or changed it into modern music, which is seductive, licentious, depressive, and complaining. It arouses desires and increases bitterness without end. Therefore there have been cases of people destroying their rulers, casting away their fathers, taking life lightly, and ruining human relations, and it has been impossible to put an end to such atrocities. Alas! Ancient music appeased the heart but modern music enhances desires. Ancient music spread a civilizing influence, but modern music increases discontent. To hope for perfect government without restoring ancient and changing modern music is to be far off the mark.

  Ch. 18, Music, Pt. 2

  Music is based on government. As the government is good and the people are happy, the hearts of all will be harmonious. The sage therefore creates music to give expression to this harmony in their hearts. As it penetrates heaven and earth, their vital force (ch’i) will be affected and there will be great harmony. As there is harmony throughout heaven and earth, all things will be in concord. Therefore spiritual beings will come to enjoy sacrifices offered them, and all animals will become tamed.

  Ch. 19. Music, Pt. 3

  As the sound of music is calm, the heart of the listener becomes peaceful, and as the words of the music are good, those who sing them will admire them. The resul
t will be that customs are transformed and mores are changed. The influence of seductive sounds and passionate words is equally great.

  Ch. 20. Learning to Be a Sage

  “Can one become a sage through learning?”

  “Yes.”

  “Is there any essential way?”

  “Yes.”

  “Please explain it to me.”

  “The essential way is to [concentrate on] one thing. By [concentrating on] one thing is meant having no desire. Having no desire, one is vacuous (hsü, being absolutely pure and peaceful) while tranquil, and straightforward while in action. Being vacuous while tranquil, one becomes intelligent and hence penetrating. Being straightforward while active, one becomes impartial and hence all-embracing. Being intelligent, penetrating, impartial, and all-embracing, one is almost a sage.”

  Comment. Confucianists had never advocated having no desire. Mencius merely advocated having few desires.56 The Taoist influence here is obvious. Hitherto, it was only a Taoist and Buddhist method of moral cultivation, but from now on, it became a Confucian method too. But as Chu Hsi said,57 Chou went too far, and as the prerequisite for concentrating on one thing, Ch’eng had to substitute seriousness (ching) for desirelessness,58 evidently in order to eliminate this Taoist influence.

  Ch. 21. Impartiality and Understanding

  Whoever is impartial toward himself will be impartial toward others. There has never been a person who is partial toward himself and yet impartial toward others. Doubt arises when understanding is not perfect. With understanding there will be no doubt. To say that to be able to doubt is to understand is as far wrong as a thousand miles off the mark.